Notes

Vocabulary is one of the best reconstructed parts of the Proto-Indo-European language. Indo-European studies have extensively dealt with the reconstruction of common PIE words and its derivatives, and lots of modern dictionaries of IE languages as Latin, English, German, Greek, Sanskrit, etc. already give etymologies in PIE roots apart from the oldest forms in their languages.

These notes are not intended to substitute the existing reference works, and indeed not to substitute the common PIE vocabulary to be used in Modern Indo-European, but just to facilitate the comprehension of Proto-Indo-European roots in light of their derivatives (and related to the vocabulary used in this grammar), showing also IE forms based on the common English vocabulary.

Many reconstructed derivatives are then from Germanic or from international words of Graeco-Latin origin, but this doesn’t imply we recommend their use over other common PIE words: for example, Latin loans gnātionālís, national, or gnātionlitā, nationality, are not used in some Germanic and Slavic languages, and should maybe be substituted by other, ‘purer’ or ‘less biased’ Proto-Indo-European terms. Also, non-IE suffixes Lat. aiqi-, re-, Gmc. iso-, “ice”, Gk. geo-, haimn-, could be substituted by common PIE formations, as e.g. Lat. re- could be replaced by a ‘purer’ IE ati-, and suffix -ti could be used instead of secondary Ita., Arm. -tio(n), etc.

1.      Carlos Quiles, translated as Indo-European Kárlos Kūriákī:

a.     Carlos is a popular Spanish name derived from Germanic karlaz, kerlaz (cf. O.N. karl, O.E. ċeorl), maybe originally “common person, free man”, Modern Indo-European Kárlos. In Norse mythology, Karl was the name of the first free peasant, the son of Rig and Amma. Rig was the human form taken by the god Heimdall when he produced the progenitors of the three social classes (thralls, peasants and nobility) with three different women. In the Scandinavian languages, Karl retains its meaning “man”. In German, the origin of the name Karl can be traced to the word Kerl which is still used to describe somewhat rough and common men. As in the words churl and churlish in English.

b.    Quiles is a genitive, and means “(son) of quili” (cf. Spa. Quílez, Cat. Quilis, Ast. Quirós, Gal-Pt. Quiris). It comes, from mediaeval noun Quirici->Quili (shortened and with r->l), a loan word from Gk. Κυριακος (Indo-European kūriákos), from which It./Spa. Quirico, Gl.-Pt. Queirici, Cat. Quirce, Fr. Quirice, O.N. kirkja, Eng. church, Scots kirk or Ger. Kirche. PIE root kew means swell. IE kū́rios means master, lord, as Gk. κυριος, and adjective Kyriakos was used as Roman cognomen Cyriacos. Kūriákī should then be the proper genitive of the MIE loan-translated Greek term.

2.     For PIE root bhā (older *b^heh₂ colored into *b^hah₁) compare modern derivatives: zero-grade (bha) suffixed bháuknos, beacon, signal, as Gmc. bauknaz (cf. O.E. beacen, O.Fris. bacen, M.Du. bokin, O.H.G. bouhhan, O.Fr. boue, “buoy”), bhásiā, berry (“bright-coloured fruit”), as Gmc. bazjo (cf. O.E. berie, berige, O.H.G. beri, Frank. bram-besi into O.Fr. framboise, “raspberry”, MIE bhrambhásiā); bhánduos, banner, identifying sign, standard, hence “company united under a particular banner” as Gmc. bandwaz (cf. Goth. banwa, also L.Lat. bandum into Sp. banda); suffixed zero-grade bháues, light, as Gk. φῶς, φωτός, (MIE bháues, bhauesós), as in common borrowings bhawtogrbhíā (see gerbh), photography, shortened bháwtos, or bháuesphoros/phósphoros, bringing light, morning star, phosphorus. See bhā for more IE derivatives.

3.     Modern derivatives from IE dńghū-, language, are usually feminine (as general dńghwā), but for extended Slavic dńghwiks, which is masculine (cf. Russ. язык, Pl. język, Cz. jazik, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. jezik, Bul. език). Compare, for the noun of the English (language), modern Indo-European words:  neuter O.E. Englisc, Ger. Englisch, Du. Engels, Gk. n.pl. Αγγλικά; masculine is found in Scandinavian engelsk, in Romance – where the neuter merged with the masculine –  Fr. anglais, It. inglese, Spa. inglés, Pt. inglese, as well as alternative Lat. sermō latīnus, and Slavic (following the masculine of the word “language”), Russ. английский [язык], Pol. język angielski, Bul. английски [език], Sr.-Cro. engleski [jezik] etc.); feminine (following the gender of “language”) Lat. anglica [lingua], Rom. [limba] engleză, or Slavic Cz. angličtina, Slo. angleščina, Bel. англiйская; or no gender at all, as in Arm. angleren [lezu].

4.     PIE root wéro, speak, (or *werh₃), gives MIE wŕdhom, word, as Gmc. wurdam, (cf. Goth. waurd, O.N. orð, O.S., O.Fris., O.E. word, Du. woord, O.H.G., Ger. wort), and wérdhom, word, verb, as Lat. uerbum, as in adwérdhiom, adverb, or prōwérdhiom, proverb; also wério, say, speak, metathesized in Greek, as in werioneíā, as Gk. εἰρωνεία; also, suffixed variant form wrētṓr, public speaker, rhetor, as Gk. ῥήτωρ, and wrḗmn, rheme. Compare also Umb. uerfalem, Gk. ειρω, Skr. vrata, Av. urvāta, O.Pruss. wīrds, Lith. vardas, Ltv. vārds, O.C.S. vračĭ, Russ. врать, O.Ir. fordat; Hitt. ueria.

5.     PIE base jeug, join (probably from a root jeu), evolved as O.H.G. [untar]jauhta, Lat. jungō, Gk. ζεύγνῡμι O.Ind. yunákti, yōjayati (IE jeugeieti), Av. yaoj-, yuj-, Lith. jùngiu, jùngti; gives common derivatives jugóm, joining, yoke; cf. Gmc. jukam (cf. Goth. juk, O.N. ok, O.S. juk, O.E. geoc, Dan. aag, M.Du. joc, Du. juk, O.H.G. juch, Ger. Joch), Lat. iugum, Gk. ζυγον, O.Ind. yugám, Skr. yogaḥ, Arm. luc (with –l influenced by lucanem, “unyoke”), Toch. yokäm, O.C.S. igo, Russ. obža, Cz. jho, Welsh iau, O.Cor. ieu, Bret. ieo; Hett. yugan; jéugos, yoke, as Goth. jukuzi, M.H.G. jiuch, Lat. jūgerum (from Lat. jūgera, IE jóugesa), Gk. ζεῦγος, O.C.S. ižesa;

6.     PIE adjective néwos, -ā, -om, gives Germanic newjaz, (cf. Goth. niujis, O.N. nýr, O.Eng. niowe, O.Fris. nie, O.H.G. niuwi, Du. nieuw, Dan., Swed. ny), Lat. nouus, Osc. núvellum, Gk. νέος, O.Ind. návas, návyas, Skr. navaḥ, Av. nava-, O.Pers. nau, Toch. ñu/ñuwe, Thrac. neos, Arm. նռր, O.Pruss. nauns (due to analogy with jauns), O.Lith. navas, Lith. naũjas, Ltv. nàujš, O.C.S. novŭ, O.Russ. новъ, Polish nowy, Gaul. Novio-, O.Ir. nūë, Welsh newydd, O.Bret. neuued, Kamviri nuĩ, Kashmiri nōv, O.Osset. nog; Hitt. newash, Luw. nāw.

It was probably a full grade of nu, now, as Gmc. nu (cf. Goth. nu, O.N. nū, O.E. nū, O.Fris. nu, O.Ger. nu, Du. nu, Ger. nun), Lat. nunc, Gk. νυ, νυν, O.Ind. nū, Av. nu, O.Pers. nūram, Toch. nuṃ/nano, O.Pruss. teinu, Lith. nū, Ltv. nu, O.C.S. nune, O.Ir. nu-, Alb. tani; Hitt. nuwa, Luw. nanun.

7.     Indo-European médhjos (from PIE me, v.i.) gives Gmc. medjaz (cf. Goth. midjis, O.N. miðr, O.S. middi, O.E. midd, O.Fris. midde, O.H.G. mitti), Lat. medius, Osc. mefiaí, Gk. μέσσος, O.Ind. mádhjam, Skt. mádhjaḥ, Av. maidja-, Pers. mēān, Illyr. metu, O.Arm. mēj, O.Pruss. median, Lith. medis, Ltv. mežs, O.C.S.. mežda, O.Russ. межу, Polish między, Gaul. Mediolānum, O.Ir. mid, Welsh mewn, Kamviri pâmüč. West Germanic dialects have a common dimminutive medhjolós, middle, as Gmc. middilaz (cf. O.E. middel, M.L.G., Du. middel, Ger. Mittel); Latin derivatives include medhjālís, medial, medhjliā, medal, medhjā, mediate, médhjom, medium, entermedhjā, intermediate, medhjaiwālís, medieval, medhitersaniós, mediterranean, etc.

PIE me, in the middle of, gives suffixed formes médhi-, among, with, as Gmc. mid-, and méta-, between, with, beside, after, as Gk. meta.

For PIE áiw-, also ájus, vital force, life, long life, eternity,  compare Gmc. aiwi (as in O.N. ei, Eng. aye, nay), suffixed áiwom, age, eternity, in medhjáiwom, Middle Ages, medhjaiwālís, mediaeval, prwimaiwālís, primeval, dhlongháiwotā, longevity; further suffixed áiwotā, age, and aiwoternós, eternal, as Lat. aeternus, in aiwotérnitā, eternity; suffixed áiwēn, age, vital force, eon, Gk. aiōn; zero-grade compound júcjēs, “having a vigorous life”, healthy (from cei, live), as Gk. hugiēs, in jucjésinā (téksnā), “(art) of health”,  hygiene, as Gk. hugieinē (tekhnē);  o-grade ójus, life, health, as Skr. āyuḥ, or Gk. ouk, from (ne) ojus (qid), “(not on your) life”, in ojutópiā, from Gk. οὐ, no, and τόπος, a place that doesn’t exist. See also jeu, vital force, youthful vigor.

8.    PIE ágros, field, also pasture, land, plain, gives Gmc. akraz (cf. Goth. akrs, O.N. akr, O.E. æcer, O.Fris. ekkr, O.H.G. achar. Eng. acre), Lat. ager, Umb. ager (both from earlier Italic agros, district, property, field), Gk. αγρός, Skr. ajras, O.Arm. art.

9.     Indo-European sqálos, squalus, shark, (cf. Lat. squalus) is probably cognate with qálos, whale, as in Gmc. khwalaz (cf. O.S. hwal, O.N. hvalr, O.E. hwæl, M.Du. wal, O.H.G. wal), possibly from an original (s)qalos, with a general meaning of “big fish”, then constrained in its meaning in individual dialects. See S-Mobile  in § 2.8  for more on such related words.

10. Indo-European áqiā, “thing on the water”, “watery land”, island, is the source for Gmc. aujō, island (cf. Goth. ahwa, O.N. á, O.E. īeg, O.H.G. aha, O.Is. ey, M.H.G. ouwe, Eng. is[land]), as may be seen on Skandináqiā, Scandinavia L.Latin mistaken form of Skadináqiā, Scadinavia, “south end of Sweden”, loan-translation of Gmc. skadinaujō, “danger island” (cf. O.E. Scedenig, O.N. Skaney); first element is usually reconstructed as IE skátom, as in Gmc. *skathan, meaning danger, scathe, damage (Goth. scaþjan, O.N. skaða, O.E. sceaþian, O.Fris. skethia, M.Du. scaden, O.H.G. scadon), which could be related to Greek α-σκηθης (a-skēthēs), unhurt. The source for áqiā is PIE root áqā, water, cognate with Lat. aqua, Russ. Oká (name of a river) and, within the Anatolian branch, Hitt. akwanzi, Luw. ahw-, Palaic aku-.

English writing “island” was influenced by French isle, from Lat. insula, itself from MIE énsalā (from en-salos, “in the sea”, from sálom, sea, v.i.), giving derivatives ensalarís, insular, ensalanós, islander, ensalínā, insuline, etc.

11.  IE léndhom, land, soil, country, region, gave Gmc. landom (cf. Goth.,O.N., O.E., O.Fris., Du., Ger. land), and is derived from PIE lendh, with the meaning of land, steppe; compare O.Pruss. lindan, O.C.S. ledina, Russ. ljada, Polish ląd, Gaul. landa, O.Ir. land, Welsh llan, Bret. lann.

12.  For PIE root (á)ḿbhi, around, about, compare Gmc. (um)bi (cf. O.N. um/umb, O.E. be/bi, ymbe, M.Du. bie, O.H.G. umbi, bi, Du. bij, Ger. um, bei), Lat. ambi, amb, Gk. ἀμφι, Skr. abhi, Celt. ambi. It is probably derived from ant(i)-bhi, lit. “from both sides”, hence older IE *n̥b^hi. For PIE ánti, front, forehead, compare Gmc. andja (end, originally “the opposite side”, cf. Goth. and, O.N. endr, O.E. ende, O.Fris. enda, O.H.G. endi), Lat. antiae, Osc. ant, Gk. ἀντι, Toch. ānt/ānte, Lith. ant, O.Ir. étan. Anatolian Hitt. ḫanta, Luw. hantili, Lyc. xñtawata support the hypothesis of an earlier locative *h₂ént-i – see ant and ambhi.

13.  Proto-Indo-European ag, drive, draw, move, do, act, compare Lat. agere, Gk. αγειν, O.Ir. Ogma, from which agtiós, weighty, as Gk. αξιος, ágrā, seizing, as Gk. αγρα, and ágtos, in ambhágtos, one who goes around, from Lat. ambactus, a loan word from Celtic. Other common derivatives include agtēiuós, active, agtuālís, actual, agtuariós, actuary, agtuā, actuate, agénts, agent, agilís, agile, agitā, agitate, ambhaguós, ambiguous, komágolom, coagulum, ekságiom, essay, eksagtós, exact, eksago, demand, ekságmn, swarm, later exam, eksagmnā, examine, eksagénts, exigent, eksaguós, exiguous, nawagā, navigate (from nus), dhūmagā, fumigate, (from dhúmos, smoke) fustagā, fustigate (from Lat. fustis, “club”), transago, compromise, ṇtransagénts, intransigent (from n-, un-, see ne), litagā, litigate (from Latin loan litágiom, litigation), prōdago, drive away, to squander, (from prō-d-es, be good), prōdagós, prodigal, redago, redact, retrōago, drive back, retrōagtēiuós, retroactive, transago, transact; Greek agogós, drawing off, in -agógos, -agogue (“leading, leader”), as in dāmagógos, “popular leader”, demagogue (from dmos, people), supnagogikós, hypnagogic (from swep, sleep), pawidagógos, pedagogue, protagonístā, protagonist (Gk πρωταγωνιστής), komagógā, synagogue; suffixed agtiós, “weighty”, as in agtiós, worth, worthy, of like value, weighing as much, as in agtiómā, axiom, Gk. ἀξίωμα, agtiologíā, axiology; suffixed ágrā, driving, pursuing, seizing, as in Gk. agrā, in podágrā.

For PIE dhúmos, smoke, Lat. fumus, Gk. thymos, Skt. dhumaḥ, O.Prus. dumis, Lith. dumai, O.C.S. dymu,  M.Ir. dumacha.

Indo-European swep, sleep, gives swópōs, deep sleep, as Lat. sopor, in compound swoposidhakós (from -dhak), soporific; swópnos, sleep, as Lat. somnus, swópnolénts, somnolent, or ṇswópniom, insomnia; zero-grade suffixed súpnos, Gk. hypnos, and in supnótis, hypnosis, supnotikós, hypnotic.

For Indo-European root pau, few, little, compare derivatives pawós, Gmc. fawaz (cf. Goth. fawai, O.N. far, O.E. feawe, Dan. faa, O.Fris. fe, O.H.G. foh) or paukós, as Lat. paucus; suffixed metathesized form parwós, little, small, neuter parwom, little, rarely; compound pauparós, producing little, poor (IE parós, producing), as in depauparā, depauparate, and empauparā, impoverish; suffixed zero-grade púlā, young of an animal, as Gmc. fulōn (cf. Goth.,O.E. fula, O.N. foli, O.H.G. folo, O.Fris. fola, M.H.G. vole, Eng. foal, Ger. Fohlen); extended suffixed pútslos, young of an animal, chicken, as Lat. pullus, and diminutive putslolós, Lat pusillus, in putslolanamós, pusillanimous; also, for words meaning “boy, child”, compare suffixed púeros, as Lat. puer, pútos, as Lat. putus, and páwids, as Gk. παις (stem paid-), in pawideíā, education, Gk. παιδεία, in enq(u)qlopáwideiā, encyclopaedia, from Modern Latin, itself from Greek “ἐγκύκλια παιδεία” “[well-]rounded education” (see IE en, q’qlos) meaning “a general knowledge”.

For IE pero, produce, procure, older *perh₂ (closely related to pero, both from per), compare Latin par- (from zero-grade), in parā, try to get, prepare, equip, in adparā, prepare, adpáratos, apparatus, apparel, enparā, command, enparātṓr, emperor, imperator, enparatēiuós, imperative, preparā, prepare, reparā, repair, separā, separate, sever; suffixed pario, get, beget, give birth, p.part. partós, in partosiénts, parturient, pártom, birth, repario, find out, repartóriom, repertory; parallel suffixed participial form parénts, parent, as Lat. parēns; suffixed form -parós, producing.

Indo-European pero, grant, allot (reciprocally, to get in return), gives derivatives as pártis, a share, part, as Lat. pars (stem part-), in partio, divide up, share, partitós, divided, share, partítos, division, party, partíkolā, particle (with dim. partikillā, parcel), dwipartitós, bipartite, kompartio, compart, enpartio, impart, repartio, repart, pártiōn, portion, a part, Lat. portiō, in prō partioní, in proportion, according to each part, into prōpártiōn, proportion; pār, equal, as in pritā, parity, kompārā, comapare, ṇpritā, imparity, etc.

14.  PIE mātḗr (also mtēr) gave Gmc. mōdar, (cf. ON móðir, O.E. mōdor, O.S. modar, O.H.G. muoter, M.Du. moeder), Lat. māter, Osc. maatreís, Umb. matrer, Gk. μήτηρ, O.Ind. mātā, Skr. mātár-, Av. mātar-, Pers. mādar, Phryg. mater, Toch. mācar/mācer, Arm. մայր (mair), Alb. motër, O.Pruss. mūti, Lith. mótė, Ltv. māte, O.C.S., O.Russ. мати, Polish matka, Gaul. mātir, O.Ir. máthir, Welsh modryb, Kamviri motr, Osset. madæ.

IE ending -ter usually indicates kinship (see also pa-ter, bhrā-ter, dhuga-ter, jena-ter), whilst ma- (earlier IE *mah₂-) is a baby like sound found in the word for “mother” in non-Indo-European languages; as, Estonian ema, Semitic ^cumm, Chinese māma, Apache, Navajo -ma, Vietnamese ma, Korean eomma, Malayalam amma, Zulu umama, Basque ama, Hawaiian makuahine, etc.; also, compare IE-related Hitt. anna, Hung. anya.

Compounds include māternós (or Lat. māternālís), maternal, mātérnitā, maternity, mātríkolā, list, register, and verb mātríkolā, matriculate, mtrīks, matrix, mātrimṓniom, matrimony; also, mātériā, tree trunk (<”matrix”, the tree’s source of growth), hence “hard timber used in carpentry”, hence (calque of Gk. hūlē, “wood, matter”), substance, stuff, matter, as in mātériālis, material; mātrópolis (from pólis), metropolis, as Gk. μητρόπολις, as well as Greek goddess of produce (especially for cereal crops) Demeter, from dē-māter , which have been related to IE de, da, or don.

English “wedding” comes from O.E. weddian “pledge, covenant to do something” from Gmc. wadjan (cf. Goth. ga-wadjon, O.N. veðja, O.Fris. weddia, Ger. Wette), from PIE base wadh- “to pledge, to redeem a pledge”, as Lat. vas (gen. vadis), “bail, security”, Lith. vaduoti “to redeem a pledge”. Development to “marry” is unique to the English language.

15.  PIE root leuk-/louk- means bright, light, brightness. Compare léuktom, light, as Gmc. leukhtam (cf. Goth. liuhaþ, O.N. leygr, O.E. lēoht, O.Fris. liacht, M.Du. lucht, O.H.G. lōh, O.Ice. lōn), or léuktio, make light, as Gmc. leukhtjan (cf. O.E. līhtan); léuks, light, as lat. lūx, as in leukíbheros, “light-bearer”, Lucifer (from bher, carry, as Greek bhóros, by samprasarana the initial desinene is lost, cf. Lat. uir<wiros, Lat. sacer<sakros in lapis níger, etc.); suffixed léuksmen, light, opening, as Lat. lūmen, for common derivatives adj. léuksmenónts(ós), luminous, enléuksmenā, illuminate, etc.; léuksnā, moon, as Lat. lūna, as in leuksnālís, lunar, leuksnātikós, lunatic, etc.; suffixed léukstrom, purification, as Lat. lūstrum; leukstrā, purify, illuminate, as Lat. lustrare, as in enleukstrā, illustrate; leukodhrā, work by lamplight, hence lucubrate, as Lat. lūcubrāre, as in eghleukodhrā, lucubrate, (see eghs) and eghleukodhrtiōn, elucubration; suffixed leukós, clear, white, as Gk. λευκός; o-grade loukē, shine, as Lat. lūcēre, in loukénts, lucent, loukeitós, lucid, ekloukeitā, elucidate, reloukē, shine, reloukénts, relucent, transloukénts, translucent; zero-grade suffixed lúksnos, lamp, as Gk. lukhnos; and also attributed by some to this root nasalized zero-grade Gk. λύγξ, -γκός, “lynx”, in any case MIE lunks. Common IE derivatives include Lat. lux, lucere, Osc. lúvkis, Umb. vuvçis, Gk. λευκός,  O.Ind. roká-, Av. raočant, Toch. luk, Arm. lois, lusin, Lith. laukas, Ltv. lauks, O.C.S. luci, Russ. lug, Gaul. leux, O.Ir. luchair, Welsh llug, Kamviri luka; Hitt. lukezi, Lyc. luga, Luw. luha-,

For PIE root lech, light, having little weight, compare Gmc. likhtaz (cf. Goth. līhts, O.N. léttr, O.E. lēoht, O.H.G. līht, Swed. lätt, O.Fris., M.Du. licht, Ger. leicht, Eng. light), Lat. levis, Gk. ἐλαχύς, Skr. laghúṣ, raghúṣ, Av. raghu-, rəvī (from *raghvī), Kashmiri lo.t, Toch. -/lankŭtse, O.Pruss. lāngiseilingins, Lith. lengva, Ltv. liegs, Sla. lьgъkъ (cf. O.C.S., O.Russ. льгъкъ, Russ. лёгкий, Pol. lekki, Cz. lehký, Sr.-Cr. ла̏к), O.Ir. lugu, laigiu (from *lagiōs), Welsh llai, Alb. lehtë. Common MIE derivatives include suffixed léchtos, light, and lechtio, lighten, as Gmc. likhtjan; lechús, light (extended in -is in Lat. leuis) into lechuā, lighten, raise, Lat. leuāre, as in léghuitā, levity, adlechuā, alleviate, eklechuā, elevate, relechuā, relieve, relechuánts, relevant; variant lachs, small, as O.Ir. lū-; nasalized zero-grade lńchs, lung, “light organ”, as Gmc. lungz (cf. O.N. lunge, O.E.,O.Fris. lungen, M.Du. longhe, Ger. lunge).

16.  Adjective cwós, alive, from zero-grade *g^wiH, is the source for Gmc. kwikwaz (cf. Goth. quis, O.N. kvikr, O.E. cwicu, O.Fris. quik, O.H.G. quec, Ger. keck, possibly also O.E. cwifer, Eng. quiver), lat. uīus, Osc. bivus, O.Ind. jīvati, Av. ǰvaiti, O. Pruss. giwа, Lith. gyventi, Ltv. dzīvs. It comes from PIE root cei, live, compare Gk. βίος (bios), ζωή (zoé), Pers. gaithā, Toch. śo/śai, O.Arm. keam, O.C.S. жити, Russ. жить, Polish żyć, Gaul. Biturīges, O.Ir. bethu, Welsh byd.

17.  PIE root léus, loosen, divide, cut apart, gives extended verb luso, lose, forfeit, Gmc. lausan (cf. O.N. los, O.E. losian, O.Is. lyja, Swe. sofve), with zero-grade part. lusonós, Gmc. luzanaz, (O.E., Du. loren, Ger. [ver]loren), leusós, loose, untied, Gmc. lausaz (cf. Goth. laus, O.N. lauss, O.E. leas, Dan. løs, M.Du., Ger. los). Compare also Lat. luēs, Gk. λύω, Skr. lunáti, Toch lo/lau, O.Ir. loë, Alb. laj; Hitt. luzzi. It is derived from PIE leu.

18. For Indo-European (á)ŕtkos, bear, big animal, from older *h₂(é)rtcos or h₂(é)rtgos, (cf. Hitt. ḫartagga), compare Lat. ursus (from Ita. orcsos), Gk. αρκτος, Skr. ṛkṣa, Av. aršam, Pers. xers, Arm. arj, Gaul. Artioni, Welsh arth, Alb. ari, Kamviri ic, Osset. ærs. Common Modern borrowings include Latin rtkinós, ursine, Artkikós, Arctic (from *Arktikós), Antartkikós, Antartic (see ánti, opposite, in front), Welsh Artkór(i)os, Arthur.

19.  Modern Indo-European nmn, name, from an older IE II *h₁noh₃mn̥, compare Gmc. namōn (cf. Goth. namō, O.N. nafn, O.E. nama, O.Fris. nama, O.H.G. namo, Du. naam), Lat. nōmen, Umb. nome, Gk. ονομα, O.Ind. nā́ma, Skr. nāman, Av. nąman, O.Pers. nāma, Toch. ñom/ñem, Arm. անռւն (anun), O.Pruss. emmens (from emnes), Sla. jьmę-jьmene (cf. O.C.S. imę, Rus. имя, Polish imię) Alb. emër/emën, O.Ir. ainmm, O.Welsh anu, O.Corn. hanow, Bret. ano, Kamviri nom; Hitt. lāman. Common modern words include Latin (from nomen, “name, reputation”), nomnālís, nominal, nomnā, nominate, dwinomniālís, binomial, komnṓmn, cognomen, denomnā, denominate, ṇnómniā, ignominy, nomnklatṓr, nomenclator, prāinṓmn, praenomen, prōnṓmn, pronoun, renṓmn, renown; from Greek are nomnstikós, onomastic,  -nomn, -onym, ṇnomnós, anonymous, antinomnsíā (from anti), antonomasia, eponomnós, eponymous, (a)sunomnós, euonymus, snteronomnós, heteronymous, somonomnós, homonymous, mātronomnikós, matronymic, patronomnikós, patronymic, nomntoqoiweíā, anomatopoeia, paronomnós, paronimous, pseudonómn, pseudonym (from Gk. pseudes, “false”) komnómn, synonym.

For PIE qéi, pile up, build, make, compare o-grade qóios, body (as in Eng. cheetah), as Skr. kāyaḥ; suffixed qoiwós, making, (after Pokorny Gk. *ποι-ϝό-ς) in verb qoiweio, make, create, as Gk. ποιεῖν, qoiwéitis, making, and as Greek suffix -qoiweitis, -poiesis, Gk. ποίησις, also from Lat. qoiweitíā, poesy, qoíweimn, poem (Gk. ποίημα), qoiwéitā, poet (Gk. ποιητής), qoiweitikós, poetic, epoqoiwéiā, epopee, etc..

Similar root PIE qéi, pay, atone, compensate, gives Gk. time, Skr. cinoti, Av. kaena, O.C.S. cena, Lith. kaina, as well as common MIE o-grade qoin, fine, penalty, as Gk. poinē into Lat. poena, as in qoinālís, penal, qoinlitā, penalty, ṇqóinitā, impunity, qoinologíā, penology, qoinitosiós, punitory, supqoin, subpoena.

20. For -qe, enclitic “and”, compare Goth, O.N. -u(h), Lat. -que, Gk. -τε, Messap. ti, si, O.Ind., Ira. -ca, Phryg. ke, Ven. kve, Gaul. -c, O.Ir. -ch-; Hitt., Luw. -ku, Lyc. -ke.

For MIE non-clitic words meaning “and”, compare especially MIE éti, “out, further”, also “and”, as Goth. iþ, O.N. i, O.E. edw, O.H.G. ita-, Lat. etiam, et (cf. Fr. et, It. ed, Spa.,Ca., i, Gl.-Pt. e, Rom. şi), Gk. eti, O.Ind. ati, Av. aiti, O.Pers. atiy, Phryg. eti, Toch. atas, aci/, O.Pruss. et-, at-, Gaul. eti, etic, O.Bret. et-, O.Welsh et-, at-.

Common Germanic untha (cf. O.N. enn, O.E. and, ond, O.S. endi, O.Fris. anda, M.Du. ende, O.H.G. enti, Ger. und), reconstructed as MIE ńti, is generally said to be ultimately from PIE ánti, in front, although more conceivably a zero-grade form of nasalized *énti, from the aforementioned PIE éti (Adrados). Also, O.E. eac, “also” (as Eng. eke), Ger. auch, are used as the common conjunction in Da.,No. og, Swe. och, from aug, increase.

Slavic “a” comes from IE adverb ad, (older *h₁d), “and, then”, as Skr. fat, “afterwards, then, so”, Av. fat, “afterwards, then”, while Slavic “(h)i” comes from IE conjunction ei, and, if, as in Gk. e.

21.  IE -r, enclitic “for”, cf. Gk. ar, ara, rá (Cypriot er), O.Ind. -r, Lith. ir, “and, also”, ar (interrogative).

22. The Angles are members of a Germanic tribe mentioned by Tacitus, O.E. Angeln, from Lat. Anglii, lit. “people of Angul” (cf. O.N. Öngull), a region in what is now Schleswig-Holstein, in Northern Germany. The adjectives for the older inhabitants could then be reconstructed as Modern Indo-European Angliós. Modern adjective English is a common Germanic formation, derived from IE suffix -isko-; as, Angliskós, Germaniskós, Teutiskós (along with ‘Classic’ Graeco-Latin Anglós, Anglikós, Germanós, Germanikós, Teutṓn, Teutonikós), etc.

The noun Germániā is from unknown origin. The Oxford English Dictionary records theories about the Celtic root gair. Another theory suggests gar, while the one that derive it from Gmc. gaizo- (cf. O.N. geirr, O.H.G. ger, O.E. gar, Ger. Ger) is one of the oldest theories proposed. It is still a common word in modern languages; as, Nor. germansk, Gk. Γερμανός, Rom. german, Ir. Gearmáinis, Sco. Gearmailtis, Arm. germaneren, Hindi Jarman, Alb. gjermanishte, etc. also in Non-Indo-European languages, like Maltese Ġermaniż, Hebrew germani, Georgian germanuli, Indonesian, Malay, Tagalog, Thai, Xhosa, Jerman, Amharic järmän.

23. For Indo-European wĺqos, wolf (fem. wĺqi/wĺqī), compare Gmc. wulfaz (cf. Goth. wulfs, O.S. wulf, O.N. ulfr, O.Fris., Du., O.H.G., Ger. wolf,), Lat. lupus, Gk. λύκος, Skt. vṛkas, Av. vehrka-, O.Pers. Varkana- (Hyrcania, “wolf-land”, district southeast of the Caspian Sea), Albanian ulk, Lith. vilkas, O.C.S. вълкъ; Rus. волк, Ukr. вовк. Closely related PIE words are wail, wolf, cf. O.Arm. gayl, O.Ir. fáel, and wĺpēs, fox, cf. Lat. uulpēs, Gk. αλωπηζ, Skr. lopāśá, Av. urupis, raopis, Pers. rōbāh, Arm. aluēs, lit. lãpė, Ltv. lapsa. Such animals are also a symbol of lust in many old Indo-European dialects.

24. PIE root bher, bear, carry, also bear children, gave Gmc. beranan (cf. Goth. bairan, O.N. bera, O.E., O.H.G. beran), Lat. fero, Umb. fertu, Gk. φέρω, O.Ind. bhárati, Av. baraiti, O.Pers. baratuv, Phryg. ber, Toch. pär, O.Arm. berel, Lith. beriù, Ltv. beŕu, O.C.S. бьрати, Rus. беру, Polish biorę, O.Ir. berim, Welsh cymmeryd, Alb. bie, Kamviri bor. With the meaning of give birth, compare Eng. birth, Goth. baurþei, Ger. Geburt, Lat. fors, O.Ind bhṛtíṣ, bibhrāṇas, O.Ir. brith, O.C.S. бьранъ. Modern derivatives include bhḗrā, bier, Gmc. bērō (cf. O.N. bara, O.E. ber, O.Fr. biere, O.H.G. bara, O.Fris. bere, M.Du. bare, Eng. bier); o-grade bhórnom, child, Gmc. barnam (cf. O.E. bearn, Scots bairn); suffixed zero-grade (kom)bhŕtis, birth, as Gmc. (ga)burthiz (cf. Goth. gabaurþs, O.N. byrðr, O.E. gebyrd, Ger. geburt, Eng. birth),  bhŕtinios, burden, as Gmc. burthinjaz (cf. Goth. baurþei, O.N. byrðr, O.S. burthinnia, O.E. byrðen, Ger. bürde); compound root bhrenko, bring (from bher+enk, reach), as Gmc. brengan (cf. Goth. briggan, p.t. brohte, pp. broht, O.Fris. brenga, O.E. bringan, M.Du. brenghen, O.H.G. bringan); from Latin ferre are common MIE -bher, -fer, bhertilís, fertile, adbherénts, afferent, kikrombheréntiā, circumference, kombhero, confer, kombheréntiā, conference, debhero, defer, disbhero, differ, ekbherénts, efferent, enbhero, infer, obhbhero, offer, prāibhero, prefer, probhero, proffer, rebhero, refer, supbhero, suffer, transbhero, transfer, woqibherā, vociferate; prefixed and suffixed zero-grade próbhrom, reproach, in obhpróbhriom, opprobrium; suffixed zero-grade bhŕtus, chance (from “a bringing, that which is brought”), as in bhrtuitós, happening by chance, fortuitous, bhrtū́nā, chance, good luck, fortune; lengthened o-grade bhōr, thief, as in bhortēiuós, furtive, bhorónkolos, furuncle; from Greek pherein are o-grade noun bhóros, carrying, -bhorā, -phore, -bhoretis, -phoresis, -bhoros, -phorous, am(bh)bhorā, (from Lat., from Gk. ambhibhoreus), anábhorā, diabhorétis, (a)subhoríā, euforia, metábhorā, peribhéreiā, bheromónā, etc.; suffixed bhérnā, dowry (“something brought by a bride”), as in parabhernáliā.

IE nek, reach, attain, gives o-grade prefixed (with intensive kom-) komnóko, suffice, as Gmc. ganakh- (cf. Goth. ganohs, O.N. gnogr, O.E. genog, O.Fris. enoch, Ger. genug); variant Greek enk, carry, gives o-grade noun ónkos, burden, mass, hence a tumor, as Gk. ὄγκος, Skr. aṃśaḥ, as in onkogénetis, onkologíā; and Germanic bhrénko, bring, v.s.

  Greek eu is usually compared with Hittite assu<*eh₂su “good”, hence MIE asu, usually su- in compounds, cf. O.Ind. su-. The fact that all Greek dialects show the same evolution in this Indo-European root is considered a rare phenomenon.

25. Attested derivatives include zero-grade Greek q’qlos/qúqlos, circle, cycle, Gk. κύκλος, (from which L.Lat. cyclus, Eng. cycle), Toch. kukäl/kokale, e-grade qéqlos, wheel, as Gmc. khwewlaz (cf. O.N. hvel, O.E. hwēol, hweogol, O.S. hiughl, O.Fris. hwel, M.Du. weel), and Lith. kãklas, or neuter qéqlom, chakra, circle, wheel, as O.Ind. cakram, Av. čаẋrа, also found as metathesized qélqos, charkha, as Old. Pers. čarka-, or Osset. calx. Other derivatives from PIE verbal root qel, meaning revolve, move around, sojourn, dwell, include Lat. colere, “till, cultivate, inhabit”, not originally o-grade in PIE (from basic form PIE qelo- -> Lat. cole-), as in qélōnos, setler, qélōniā, colony, qeltós, cultivated, qéltos, worship, cult, qeltēiuós, tilled, qeltēiuā, cultivate, qéltosā, culture, ṇqeltós, incult, ṇqélinos, inquiline, etc; suffixed qélōs, “completion of a cycle”, consummation, perfection, end, result, telos, gives Gk. τέλος, -εος (remember that PIE [k^w] becomes Gk. [p] or [t] before certain vowels), giving qeliós, perfect, complete, from which qeliologíā, teleology, qéliom, telium, qelio, consacrate, fulfill, in turn giving qelésmn, consecration ceremony, from which qelesmn (through Arabic tilasm, then It. talismano or Spa. talismán into Fr. talisman); from o-grade qólso-, “that on which the head turns”, neck, hals, are qólsos, Gmc. kh(w)alsaz (cf. Goth., O.N., Dan., Swed., Du., Ger. hals), and qólsom, as Lat. collum, from which derivatives qolsr, collar, deqolsā, decollate, behead, etc.; suffixed -qolā, -colous, and enqolā, inhabitant a Lat. -cola, incola; ánqolos, “one who bustles about”, servant, as Lat. anculus, giving dim. f. anqíllā, maidservant; qólos, axis of a sphere, pole, as Gk. πόλος, also -qólos, herdsman, as couqólos, cowherd, (from cōus, cow), as Gk. βουκόλος, giving couqolikós, bucolic; also, qólōs, wheel, as Slavic kolo, koles (cf. O.C.S. коло, Russ. колесо, Pol. koło); suffixed o-grade qólenos, traffic, as O.Ira. -carana, as in wésāqólenos, “sale-traffic”, bazaar, as O.Ira. vahacarana (see wes), Pers. bāzār, hence also MIE partial loan wesr or loan bazr, bazaar. Compare also O.N. hjōl, Skr. cárati, Av. caraiti, Old Prussian -kelan, Lith. kelias, O.Ir. cul, Alb. sjell; Luw. kaluti-; zero-grade variant qĺin, again, as Gk. πάλιν, as in qlíndromos (from Gk. -δρόμος, racecourse), palindrome, qlínpsēstos, palimpsest, Gk. παλίμψηστος (from Gk. psēn, “scrape”).

A common word for wheel is rótā, from which Gmc. radō (cf. ON rǫðull, O.E. rodur, O.H.G. rad), Lat. rota, Skr. ratha, Av. radha, Lith. ratas, Ltv. rats, Gaul. Roto-, Ir. rath, Welsh rhod,  Alb. rrath. Known modern derivatives are Celtic loan word to-wó-rets, formed by IE “do-upo-réts”, “a running up to”, which gives Mod. Eng. tory, from O.Ir. tōir, “pursuit”; also, retondós, rolling, which gave rotondós, round, rotund, as Lat. rotundus.

26. Compare for PIE ghóstis, stranger, guest, Gmc. gastiz (cf. Goth. gasts, O.N. gestr, O.E. gæst, O.Fris. jest, O.H.G. gast), Lat. hostis, hospes (hostis-potes) O.C.S. gosti, OCS gostĭ, Russ. гость, Polish gość; Luw. gaši. Compound ghospóts, host, (Lat. hospes, guest, originally host, “lord of strangers”), gives MIE ghospotālís, hospitable, and also ghospotlis, hospital (from M.Lat. hospitale, meaning inn, large house, “guest house”), reduced as ghostlis, hostel, from O.Fr. hostel, in turn from Lat. hos(pi)tale. For Hotel, a more international borrowing from the same word, it could be used either as ghostlis, or as a French loan word ghostél/ghotél; compare words with slightly different meanings: Eng. hostel-hotel, Ger. Gasthaus-Hotel, Swe. gstgiveri-hotel, Ice. gistihtel, Spa. hostal-hotel, It. ostello-hotel, Pt. hotel, Russ. гостиница (gostinitsa), Uk. готел (gotel), Pol. hotel, Cz. hostinec, Pers. hotel, Ind. hotel, and also in non-Indo-European languages, as Finnish hotelli, Japanese ホステル (hosuteru) - ホテル (hoteru), Korean 호텔 (ho-t'el), Thai โฮเต็ล (hō-ten), etc. The word for ‘hotel’ in Latin, however, was deuersorium, from the same root as Eng. divert.

27. More PIE derivatives related to stáuros, (also stéuros, both from PIE ster) are Germanic (s)teuraz (cf. Goth. stiur, O.S. stior, O.N. stjórr, O.E. steor, O.H.G. stior, M.Du., Du. stier; Dan. tyr, Swed. tjur), Lat. taurus, Osc. turuf, Gk. ταυρος, Av. staora, O. Pruss. tauris, Lith. tauras, Ltv. tauriņš, O.C.S. turu, Rus. tur, Pol. tur, Gaul. tarbos, Welsh tarw, O. Ir. tarb, Oscan turuf and Alb. taroç.

28. Indo-European nízdos, nest, resting place, is a secondary PIE root, from ni-, down, + sed, sit. Compare Gmc. nistaz, Lat. nidus, O.Ind. nidas, Skr. nīḍá, Arm. nist, O.C.S. гнѣздо, Russ. гнездо́, Polish gniazdo, O.Ir. net, Welsh nyth, Bret. nez. For mízdhos, compare Gmc. mizdō (Goth. mizdō, O.E. mēd, O.S. mēda , O.H.G. mieta), Gk. μισθός, Skr. mīdhá, Av. mīžda, Pers. muzd, meed, O.C.S. mĭzda, Russ. мзда́.

29. PIE ker, horn, head, gave derivatives kŕnos, horn, Gmc. khurnaz (cf. Goth. haurn, O.E. horn, Ger. Horn, Du. horen), Lat.,Celt. cornū (<*kórnus, a blending with variant o-grade kórus, as in Gk. koru-); kéruīks, neck, from Lat. cervīx; kérudos, male dear, hart, from Gmc. kherutas (cf. O.H.G. hiruz, O.N. hjörtr, O.E. heorot,  M.Du. hert, Ger. Hirsch); kéruos, deer, as Lat. ceruus, Welsh carw; kŕsniom, Gk. κρανίον, Lat. cranĭum; kŕsnotom, hornet as Gmc. khurznutu- (cf. O.E. hyrnetu, hurnitu, Du. horzel); kerésrom [ke-‘rez-rom], brain, as Lat. cerĕbrum (compare also O.N. hjarni, O.H.G. hirni, Ger. Hirn); other derivatives include Gk. καρη, Skr. śiras, srngam, Av. sarah, Pers. sar, Toch. krāñi, Arm. sar, O.Pruss. kerpetis, Lith. szirszu, Ltv. šk̨irpta, O.C.S. чрѣпъ, Russ. čerep, Pol. trzop, Bret. kern, Alb. krye, Osset. sær.

30. For PIE snúsos, daughter-in-law, compare Gmc. snusaz (cf. Goth. schuos, O.N. snor, O.E. snoru, O.H.G. snur), Lat. nurus, Gk. νυος, Skr. snuṣā, Arm. nu, OCS snŭxa, Russ. сноха, Polish snecha, Alb. nuse.

31.  PIE nébhōs, cloud, evolved as Skr. nábhas, Av. nabah, Lith. debesis, Ltv. debess, O.C.S. nebo, Russ. nebo, Polish niebo, O.Ir. nem, Cor. nef, Kamviri niru; Hitt. nepiš, Luw. tappaš-, Lyc. tabahaza. Suffixed nébhelā gives Gmc. nibila (cf. O.N. niflhel, O.E. nifol, O.H.G. nebul, also found in MIE patronymic Nebhelńkos, Gmc. Nibulunkhaz, as O.H.G. Nibulunc, Nibulung), also Welsh niwl, Lat. nebŭla, as in nebhelós, nebulous, and Gk. nephelē, as in nebhelínā, nepheline, nebhelométrom, nephelometer; suffixed nebhologíā, nephology; nasalized némbhos, rain, cloud, aura, as Lat. nimbus.

For PIE mē, measure, compare  derivatives suffixed mḗlos, meal “measure, mark, appointed time, time for eating, meal”, as Gmc. melaz (v.s.); suffixed mḗtis, wisdom, skill, as Gk. mētis, further suffixed metio, measure, as Lat. mētīrī, in nasalized p.part. mensós, measured, mensósā, measure, mensosālis, mensural, kommensosā, commensurate, disménsiōn, dimension, ṇmensós, immense; métrom, measure, rule, length, proportion, poetic meter (referred by some to IE med-), as Gk. μέτρον, in metrikós, metrical, diametrós, diameter, geometríā, geometry, wiswometrikós, isometric, metrologíā, metrology, kommetríā, symmetry;  extended and suffixed forms mḗnā, month, moon, as Gmc. mēnōn (cf. O.E. mona), Gk. mēn, mēnē, in derivatives mēnopáusā, menopause, ṇmēnosréwiā, amenorrhea, etc.; for month, compare also mḗnōts, as Gmc. mēnōth- (cf. Goth. menoþs, O.N. manaðr, O.E. mōnath, M.Du. manet, O.H.G. manod, Du. maand, Ger. Monat), and Latin mḗnsis, as in menstruā, menstruate, menstruālís, menstrual, dwiménstris, bimester, dwimenstriālís, bimestrial, seksménstris, semester, triménstris, trimester, etc. (see also zero-grade suffix -m(ns)ris, month).

PIE mē referred also to certain qualities of mind, as suffixed o-grade mṓtos, mind, disposition, as Gmc. mothaz (cf. Goth. moþs, O.N. moðr, O.Fris. mod, M.Du. moet, O.H.G. muot, Du. moed, Ger. Mut), and Latin mōs, wont, humor, manner, custom, as in loan words (affected by rhotacism) mosālís, moral, mósōs, custom, mosónts(ós), morose.

Also, PIE mē, big, gives suffixed comparative mḗisā, greater, more, as Gmc. maizōn (cf. O.S. mera, O.N. meiri, O.Eng. O.Fris. mara, O.H.G. mero, M.Du. mere, Ger. mehr), Osc. mais, Gk. -moros, Av. mazja, O.Ir. mor; also, superlative mēistós, most, Gmc. maistaz; (Lat. maes, “more”, comes from meg). 

IE med, take appropriate measures, measure, gives Gmc. metan (cf. Goth. mitan, O.E. metan, O.Fris., O.N. meta, Du. meten, Eng. mete, Ger. messen), also (kom)médā, measure, Gmc. (ga)mætijaz (cf. O.N. mætr, O.E. gemæte, O.H.G. gimagi, Eng. meet, Ger. gemäß); medio, look after, heal, cure, as Lat. medērī, in medikā, medicate, medikínā, medicine, medikós, medical, remédiom, remedy; meditā, think about, consider, reflect, meditate; suffixed medes-, giving (influenced by Lat. modus) modestós, “keeping to the appropriate measure”, moderate, ṇmodestós, inmodest; modesā, “keep within measure”, moderate, control,  ṇmodesatós, inmoderate; medóntiā, Medusa, from Gk. medein, “rule”; suffixed o-grade módos, measure, size, limit, manner, harmony, melody, mood, as in módā, mode, modélos, model, modesnós, modern, modidhakā, modify, modolā, modulate, módolos, module, modulus, kommodā, commode, kommóditā, commodity, adkommodā, accomodate;  suffixed o-grade módios, a measure of grain; lengthened o-grade mōds, ability, measure, as in mōdo, have occasion, to be permitted or obliged, as Gmc. mōtan (cf. Goth. gamotan, O.Fris. mota, O.E. motan, M.L.G. moten, Du. moeten, Ger. müssen, Eng. must from O.E. part. moste).

32. PIE verb gen, give birth, beget, produce, is a well-attested root which gives derivatives referring to aspects and results of procreation and to familial and tribal groups, e.g. génōs, race, stock, kind, gender, as Lat. genus, generis, Gk. γένος, Skr. janaḥ, giving derivatives genesā, generate, geneslis, general, genestiōn, generation; alternate base gńa, giving cognate gńtis, natural, native, clan, kin, race, as Gmc. kundiz (cf. O.E. gecynd, Eng. kind), Lat. gentis, Gk. γένεσις, Skr. jāta, Lith. gentis; reduplicate gígno, beget, with past participle genitós, as in genitṓr, genitlis, komgenitālís, etc., cf. Lat. gignere, Gk. γίγνεσθαι, Skr. jajanti, Av. zīzənti; gnāsko, be born, from Lat. gnāscī, as in gnātós, born, gnātēiuós, native, gntiōn, nation, gntosā, nature, komgnātós, cognate; prāignánts, pregnant; génios, procreative divinity, inborn tutelary spirit, innate quality; engenuós, born in (a place), native, natural, freeborn, then ingenuous, and genuīnós, genuine; engéniom, inborn character, later engine, and engeniónts(ós), ingenious; endogenā, native, indigen; génmēn, germen, as in genmenā, germinate, genmenālís, etc. Compare also Gmc. kunjam, Osc. genetaí, Umb. natine, Skr. janati, Pers. zāēdan, Phryg. cin, Thrac. zenis, Toch. kän, Arm. cnanim, Lith. gimdyti, Ltv. znots, OCS zętĭ, Russ. зять, O.Ir. ro-genar, Welsh geni, Alb. dhëndër/dhândër, Kam. zut; Hitt. genzu.

33. From PIE root weid, woid, see, know, compare Gmc. wītan (Goth. weitan, O.N. vita, O.S., O.E. witan, O.H.G. wizzan), Lat. uidēre, Gk. ιδειν, ειδοσ, οιδα, Doric Gk. woida, Skr. vēdah, Av. vaēda, Phryg. wit-, Arm. gitem, O.Pruss. widdai (from vidāi̯et), Lith. véizdmi, O.C.S. видѣти, Pol. widzieć, Rus. ви́деть, Gaulish vindos, O.Ir. ro-fetar, Welsh gwyn, Breton gwenn, Kashmiri vūčhūn. Derivatives include wéistos (<*wéidtos), learning, wisdom, knowledge, appearance, form, manner, as Gmc. wissaz (cf. O.N. viss, O.S., O.Fris., O.E. wīs, O.H.G. wiz, O.Fr. guise, Du. wijs, Ger. weise, Eng. wise); suffixed wéidōs, form, shape, as Gk. eidos, in wéidolom, idol, eidolon, as Gk. εἴδωλον; zero-grade form wídiom, knowledge, understanding, intelligence, mind, as Gmc. witjam (cf. O.N. vit, O.S. wit, O.Fris. wit, O.H.G. wizzi, O.E. wit, Dan. vid, Swed. vett, Ger. Witz), also ṇwídiom, ignorance (cf. Goth. unwiti); from zero-grade widē, see, look, as Lat. uidēre, are wistós (<*widtós, uisós in Latin), seen, as in wístā, visa, wístiōn, vision, wistitā, visit, wístōs, visor, adwístom, advice, adwistā, advise, enwídiā, envy, ekwidénts, evident, prowidē, foresee, prowistós, foreseen, ṇprowistós, unforeseen, nprowistā, improvise, enterwidē, interview, enwidiónts(ós), invidious, prāiwidē, previse, prowidē, provide, prowidénts, prudent, rewidē, review, rewistā, revise, superwistā, supervise, survey; suffixed widésiā, appearance, form, idea, as Gk. ἰδέα; suffixed wistṓr (<*widtór), wise, learned, learned man, Gk. histōr, in wistoríā; Ńwidā, Hades, the underworld, perhaps “the invisible”, as Gk. Haidēs/Aidēs; suffixed o-grade wóidos, knowledge, as Skr. vedaḥ.

34. Indo-European qēl, far, gives prefixes qēle-, far off, from Gk. τηλε- (related to qēleos, Gk. τελεος, end, goal, result), and qḷai-, long ago, Eng. paleo-, from qḷaiós, old, ancient, Gk. παλαιός. This PIE base is possibly related (as a lengthened form) to qel, move around; cf. Skr. caramah, Welsh pellaf, Bret. pell.

It is discussed whether television was formed in Eng. or borrowed from Fr. télévision, in either case from Gk. tele-, “far off, afar, at or to a distance”, and  Lat. vision. Other proposals for the name of this then-hypothetical technology were telephote (1880) and televista (1904). The technology was developed in the 1920s and '30s. Loan-translated in Ger. as Fernsehen.

English technology comes from PIE teks, weave, also fabricate, plait, cf. O.N. þexla, O.H.G. dehsa, Lat. textō, Gk. tektōn, Skr. takṣati, Av. tašaiti, O.Pers. ustašana, Pers. taš, Lith. tašau, Ltv. tešu, OCS tešǫ, Russ. tesla, Ir. tál; Hitt. takš. Common derivatives include tékstos, text, komtékstos, context, prāitékstos, pretext; suffixed tékslā, web, net, warp of a fabric, also weaver's beam (to which the warp threads are tied), also found in adj. suptekslís, thin, fine, precise, subtle (<*sup-tékslā, “thread passing under the warp”, the finest thread); suffixed téksōn, weaver, maker of wattle for house walls, builder, tekstṓr, builder, tékstōn, carpenter, builder, as in tekstonikós, tectonic, or arkhitékstōn, architect (from Gk. arkhein, “begin, rule”); téksnā, art, craft, skill, as Gk. tekhnē, in teksnikós, technical, teksnologíā, technology.

Another common PIE verbal root for “weave” was webh, as in Gmc. webanan (cf. O.N. vefa, O.E. wefan, O.H.G. weban, M.L.G., M.Du., Du. weven, Eng. weave, Ger. weben), Gk. huphē, Skr. ubhnāti, Av. ubdaēna, O.Pers. baftan, Pers. bāfad, Toch. wäp/wāp, Alb. vegjë. A common MIE word is o-grade wóbhiom, web, fabric, as Gmc. wabjan (cf. O.S. webbi, O.N. vefr, O.E. webb, O.H.G. weppi, Du. webbe, Ger. gewebe), also as English loan word simply webh, as in Wíralts Wit Webh, World Wide Web, WWW; also, wobh(i)o, move back and forth as in weaving, as Gmc. wab- (cf. O.N. vafra, O.E. wafian, wæfre, M.E. waveren, M.H.G. waben, L.Ger. wabbeln); suffixed zero-grade form úbhā, web, as Gk. huphē.

Proto-Indo-European wi, apart, away, is the source for adj. witós, wide, as Gmc. withas (cf. O.S., O.E., O.Fris. wid, O.N. viðr, Du. wijd, O.H.G. wit, Eng. wide, Ger. weit), and also for wit(e)ros/m, against, lit. “more apart”, as Skr. vitaram, Gmc. withros (cf. Goth. wiþra, O.S. withar, O.N. viðr, O.E. wið, O.H.G. widar, M.Du., Du. weder, Du. weer, Eng. with, Ger. wieder). Compare other derivatives as Skr. vi, Av. vi-, Hitt. na-wi “not yet”, O.C.S. vutoru, “other, second”, as Russ. второй.

35. PIE root ag, drive, draw out or forth, move, set in motion, gives O.N. aka, Lat. agere, actus, Osc. acum, Gk. ἄγω, Skr. ájati, ajiráh, Av. azaiti, Toch. āk, Arm. acem, O.Ir. ad-aig, āin, O. Welsh agit; probably Hitt. aggala-, “furrow”. For more on ag, v.i.

36. For root legh, lie down, rest, gave Gmc. ligjan (cf. Goth. ligan, O.N. liggja, O.E. licgan, O.Fris. lidzia, M.Du. ligghen, O.H.G. liggan), Lat. lectus, Gk. λεχώ, Toch. lake/leke, Lith. at-lagai, Ltv. lagača, O.C.S. lego, Russ. лежа́ть, Polish leżeć, Gaul. legasit, O.Ir. lige, Welsh gwal; Hittite lagi.

37. PIE root peds, foot, is the source for Gmc. fōts (cf. Goth. fōtus, O.N. fōtr, O.E. fōt, O.H.G. fuoz, Du. voet), Lat. pedis, Umb. peři, Gk. πεζός, Dor. πώς, Skr. раdám, Av. pâda-, Pers. pa, Arm. het, Toch. peṃ/paiyye, Lith. pė́dą, Ltv. pęda, O.C.S. пѣшь, Russ. пе́ший, Pol. pieszy, Alb. poshtë, Osset. fad; Hitt. pata, Lyc. pede-, Luw. pati-.

38. The common verb klus(sk)o, listen, comes from zero-grade of PIE klew, hear, and it has derivatives refer also to fame, word or loud, as in Gmc. khlusinōn, ‘listen’ (cf. O.E. hlysnan, O.H.G. hlosen, Eng. listen), khlūdaz, ‘loud’ (cf. Goth. hliuþ, O.N. hljóðr, O.N. hlud, O.H.G. hlut), Lat. cluēre, Gk. κλυω, κλέος  (as in Ἡρακλῆς, Herakles), Skr. śru, srnoti, c̨rāváyati  Av. sraota-, surunaoiti, sravayeiti, M.Pers. srod, Pers. sаrāуīdаn, Illyr. cleves, Toch. klyos, klāw, Arm. lu, O.Lith. šlãvė, šlovė̃, Lith. klausau, šlóvė, Ltv. klausīt, slava, slave, O.C.S. slusati, slava, slovo, Russ. слово, сла́ва, Pol. słowo, słаwа, Gaul. clu, O.Ir. clunim, Welsh clywaf, Alb. quhem.

The common Slavic word to define themselves, O.C.S. словѣне, словѣньскъ, reconstructed as an older base [k^jlou-], if ultimately Indo-European (cf. for klutós, “heared, famous”, Skr. śrutá-, Av. sruta-, Gk. lytós, Lat. in-clitus, M.Ir. rocloth, O.H.G. Hlot-hari, Arm. lu), is a demonym whose first reference is probably found in Ptolemy, who identified tribes called Stavanoi and Soubenoi, then translated (6^th century) as M.Lat. Sclaueni/Sthlaueni, M.Gr. Σκλαβηνοί/Σθλαβηνοί. It is thus probably related to either slava, fame, (as slaviane), thus “glorious people”, or from slovo, speach, (as slověne),  therefore originally meaning “member of the speech community” (cf. Albanian noun for themselves, shqipetár, derived from shqipónj, understand), in contrast with the Germans, who were in O.C.S. nemici, related to nemu ‘dumb’. Compare with the Greek custom of using βαρβαρος to mean “foreign, strange, ignorant” (derivatives are Lat. barbărus, Eng. barbarian) from PIE base barbar-, echoic of unintelligible speech, like that of foreigners (cf. Skt. barbara-, stammering, also “non-Aryan”). Therefore, a proper MIE reconstruction for such Slavic term is Klówenos, Slav, for словѣне, and Kloweniskós, Slavic, for словѣньскъ, but – because the reconstruction is uncertain, and modern crossed borrowings are usual–, modern loan words Slawénos, Slaweniskós should be preferred.

For common MIE terms – which could be also written with initial klo- instead of slo-/sla-, compare: Slawénos, Slav; Slaweniskós, Slavic; Slowéniskā, Slovakia; Slowéniā, Slovenia; Sloweniskós, Slovak; Slowenikós, Slovene; Augosláwiā, Yugoslavia. The later is a compound of MIE reconstructed augs, southern, from ug- (proper IE reconstruction of Slavic jug-), originally referring to a southern wind, possibly ultimately from PIE root aug, with derivatives meaning increase, enlarge, as already seen.

39. PIE root bhes breathe, blow, gave Skr. bhas-, Gk. ψυχειν, and is probably of imitative origin. Its zero-grade bhs- gives supposedly *bhsūgh [‘(b^h)su:-k^ha:], spirit, soul, originally breath, life, “the invisible entity behind the physical body” (personified as Psykhe, the lover of Eros), a MIE loan word (bhsūgho- in compounds) from Gk. ψυχή, with an unreconstructed Greek ending -kh-, probably PIE -gh-. In light of O.Ind. bábhasti, some would rather reconstruct a metathesized PIE spu-, hence MIE psūgh.

40. Usually reconstructed preposition and preverb *ksun, with, together, as Gk. ξυν, is explained as kom via Greek-psi substratum (Villar). Slavic su-, so/s, normally compared with the Greek form, could in turn come from zero-grade sm (see sem, one), as O.Ind. sa. Then compound smwdus, council, from Slavic so-vetu, is also formed by O.C.S. вѣтъ, counsel, advice (a loan-translation in Gk. βουλή in ‘συμ-βούλιον’), which comes from PIE root weid, know (see Consonant Change in § 2.8.4), also found with this broader sense of speak, “share knowledge”, in Baltic, cf. O.Pruss waitiāt, Lith. vaitenù.

41.  IE gntiōn, nation, stock, race, lit. “that which has been born”, is a Latin loan from gn(ā)tós, past part. of gnásko, be born, as Lat. natiōnis, natus, gnasci (ultimately from gen). Political sense has gradually taken over from racial meaning “large group of people with common ancestry”, and common derivatives include gnātionālís, national, or gnātionlitā, nationality, or gnātēiuós, native, “innate, produced by birth”, etc.

42. PIE root for prkskó is prek, ask, entreat, pray, and is cognate with Gmc. frēkhnan (cf. Goth. fraíhnan, O.N. fregna, O.E. frignan, O.H.G. frāga), Lat. prex, Osc. aparsam, Umb. pepurkurent, Skr. prac̨nás, prāś, Av. frāsa, Toch. prak/prek, Arm. hаrc̣аnеm, Lith. рrаšаũ, Ltv. рrаsu, O.C.S. просити, Russ. проси́ть, Pol. prosić, Welsh archaf, Ir. arco, M.Bret. archas. Common MIE derivatives include preks, prayer, as Lat. prex, and verb prekā, entreat, pray, as Lat. precāri, in prekāsiós, precarious (a purer IE word is dúsopis, cf. O.Ir. domme  ‘poor’ <*dus-op-smjo, Lat. inops, O.Ind. durāpah ‘hard to obtain’, etc), deprekā, deprecate, enprekā, imprecate; from prkskó is extended p(o)rs(k)stolā, ask, request, postulate, as Lat. postulāre.

43. Modern Indo-European words for “house”:

A.    Derivatives from an original PIE root dem- are dṓmos/démos, house, ‘shelter’, are Lat. domus, Umb. dâmoa, Gk. δόμος, δῆμος (deme), O.Ind. dámas, Av. dąm, Toch. tam/täm, Arm. tun, Lith. namas, Ltv. nams, O.C.S. домъ, Rus. дом, Pol. dom, Welsh tŷ. Also common for lord, ‘house-master’, is dómūnos, cf. Skr. dámūnas, Lat. dominus (see Latin ablaut). From IE dṓmn is Gk. δῶμα, dome. Probably from same root is base demo, build, giving démrom, timber, Gmc. temran (cf. Goth. timrjan, O.N. timbr, O.E. timber, O.Fris. timber, O.H.G. zimbar, Ger. Zimmer); also verb demrio, build, Gmc. timrian (build, cf. O.E. timbran, Du. timmeren, Ger. zimmern) and compare also Gmc. tumfetìz, (Eng. toft, from O.N. topt),  Gk. δάπεδον, Lith. dimstis.

B.    For ‘house’ in Germanic languages MIE reconstructs a common kúsom, dwelling, shelter, from Gmc. khusam (cf. Goth. -hus, O.N., O.E., O.Fris. hus, Du. huis, Ger. Haus), probably related to PIE root (s)kéu, cover, conceal. Compare in kéudh(i)o, hide, conceal, Gmc. kluthjanan (O.E. hyde), Gk. κεύθω, and other derivatives like kéudhis, covering, Gmc. khudiz (cf. O.N. huð, O.E. hyd, O.Fris. hed, M.Du. huut, Ger. Haut), skéuiom, cloud, cloud cover, as Gmc. skeujam (cf. Goth. skuggwa, O.N. scy, skuggi, O.E. sceo, scua, O.S. scio, O.H.G. scuwo, scūr, O.Ice. skāli, skjōl, M.H.G. hode, Ger. Scheuer), Lat. cutis, scutum, ob-scurus, Gk. κύτος, Skr. kostha, skunati, Arm. cim, Lith. kẽvalas, Ltv. skura, Rus. kishka, O.Ir. cūl, Welsh cuddio.

C.    PIE root kat, hut, shed is probably the source of Romance kasā (thus older PIE kátiā) as in Gmc. kha- (cf. O.E. heaðor), Lat. catena, cassis, castrum, Av. kata-, Pers. kad, O.C.S. kotici, kotú, O.IR. cathir, Welsh cader. The different warlike meanings found are explained by confusion with a similar PIE root, kats, troop, battle, cf. O.N. hoð, O.E. heaþu, O.H.G. hathu, Skr. śātayati, Toch. /keta, O.C.S. kotora, Gaul. catu, O.Ir. cath, Welsh cad.

Compare also from other works, Swe. kåta, Nor. kota/kote/kåte (probably borrowed from Uralic kota, as Finnish koti, Est. kodu, Hung. ház), and also Skr. cātvāla-, Av. čāiti, Toch B kotai-, Alb katua, as well as other unexplained words like Bul. къща, Srb.-Cro. kuča, Slovene hiša, all meaning hut, shed, house, or hole, prison, some of them reconstructed as derived from PIE root ket, storage pit (Mallory-Adams).

D. Old Greek οἶκος (oíkos), house, comes from IE wóikos, which gave also Gk. οἰκία, house, and Gk. οἰκησις, dwelling, administration, and Gk. οἰκητός, inhabitant; in MIE, it has universal loan-translations like woikonomíā, economy, originally “household, management”, from woikonómos, econome, “manager, steward”, woikologíā, ecology, woikosōménos, world, inhabited world (into Proto-Greek woikohōmeno- -> Att. Gk. οἰκουμένη [γῆ], “inhabited [land]”). It is the o-grade form of wéikos, village, dwelling, “group of houses”, (cf. Lat. uīcus, Skr. vesaḥ), as in wéikinos, neighbour, weikínitā, neighborhood, or loan word wīllā (from It. villa, country house, villa, farm, from Lat. villa, in turn from PIE wéikslā). The noun is derived from PIE root weiks, clan, village, “social unit above the household”; compare Goth,O.H.G. weihs, O.E. wic, Skr. viś, Av. vīs, O.Pers. vitham, Toch. īke, Lith. viešas (cf. also O.Pruss. waispattin, Lith. viešpats, MIE weikspóts,“clan-master”, landlord, a compound equivalent to dems-póts, “house-master”, landlord, and similar to ghos-póts, “guest-master”, host), Ltv. viesis, OCS vĭsĭ, Russ. ves', Pol. wieś, Alb. vis.

MIE suffix -nomíā, -nómos come from IE nómos, custom, law, usage, method, Gk. νόμος, in turn from PIE base nem, allot, distribute, divide, manage; cf. Gmc. niman (cf. Goth. niman, O.N. nema, O.E. naemel, numol, O.H.G. nëman, Eng. numb, nim, Ger. nehmen), Gk. νέμειν, Av. nəmah, Toch. ñemek, Lith. nuomas, Ltv. noma, Russ. nemoj, O.Ir. nem. Other known derivatives include nómesos, number, division, as Lat. numerus, nomesālís, numeral, etc. nómā, pasturage, grazing, hence “a spreading, a spreading ulcer”, noma, from which nómads is derived (Lat. nomas); also, nomismátis, Lat. numismatis, in nomismátikā, numismatics, from nómismn, current coin, custom (from O.Gk. νόμισμα, lit. “what has been sanctioned by custom or usage”), from IE verb nomiso, “to hold or own as a custom, usage, to use customarily, practise, to be used to a thing” (as Gk. νομίζω, in turn from νόμος). Also, Németis, Gk. goddess of vengeance, from Gk. Νέμεσις, “indignation, jealousy, vengeance” lit. “distribution, partition”.

E. For Indo-Aryan ghar, compare a comon IE root ghers, court, yard.

44. For PIE base pótis, powerful, able, capable; also lord, master, compare poto, “be able”, (from Lat. potere), from which poténts (Lat. pres.p. potens) and poténtiā; cf. also Gk. posis, Skt. patih, Lith. patis. Also found in compounds posso, be able, (Lat. posse, from pó[ti]s, able, and [e]s, be), as in possibhilís, possible, “that can be done”, and possedē, possess (from Lat. possidēre, from po[ti]s, “as master”, and sédē, sit), which gives posséstiōn (<*possedtion), possession, forms which are properly expressed by potḗio, as O.Lat. potēō, a verb usual in modern Romance through a V.Lat. potere (cf. Fr. pouvoir, Ita. potere, Pt., Spa. poder, Rom. putere, etc.).

For PIE es (older *h₁es), be, compare Goth. ist, O.N. es, O.E. is, O.H.G. ist, Lat. est, Osc. súm, Umb. sent, Gk. esti, Skr. asti, Av. asti, O.Pers. astiy, Toch. ṣe/ṣei, Arm. ē, O.Pruss. asmai, Lith. esmi, Ltv. esmu, O.C.S. jestĭ, Russ. есмь, Polish jest, O.Ir. am, Alb. është/âsht; Hitt. asa, Lyc. es, Luw. as, Lyd. e-, Palaic aš-. Its origin is traced by some linguists to a dialectal pronunciation of eg-, “I”, in some early (influencial) Satem dialect; compare O.Ind. ásmi, “I am” (<PIE és-mi, from IE II *eg’?->*es, cf. Skr. áham, “I”, from eghóm), or Lat. sum, “I am” (from PIE esóm, cf. Ven. ehom, “I”, from eghóm). Such explanation from Pokorny is possibly out-dated today in light of the newest findings on the so-called palatovelars, v.s.

a.     A proper Indo-Euroepan word meaning “owe” was PIE verb áik, be master of, possess, and áikos, master, owner; as Gmc. aiganan  (cf. Goth. aigan, O.Fris. aga, O.N. eiga, O.E. āgan, O.H.G. eigan, Eng. ought), Skr. īṣṭe, iṣah, Avestan īšti, išvan-.

A similar IE root forms áiks, meaning spear, pike; compare O.N. eigin, Lat. īcō, Gk. αικλος, Av. išarə, O. Pruss. aysmis, Lith. iešmas, Ltv. iesms, O.C.S. igla, Russ. игла, Pol. igła.

b. For PIE sed, sit, compare derivatives sedio, Gmc. sitjan (cf. Goth. sitan, O.S. sittian, O.N. sitja, O.E. sittan, O.Fris. sitta, M.Du. sitten, O.H.G. sizzan, sezzal); sédlos/sédlā, seat, position, as Gmc. setlaz (cf. Goth. sitls, M.L.G., M.Du. setel, O.E. setl, Du. zetel, Ger. Sessel), Lat. sella, O.C.S. sedlo, O.E. sadol; suffixed stative sedē, sit, as Lat. sedēre, with p.part. sestós (<*sedtós), sat, giving sedentasiós, sedentary, séstiōn, session, sédikom, siege, (from L.Lat. sedicum, although besiege from Lat. is situā, possibly from IE tkei), dissedē, disagree, dissedénts, dissident, adsedē, asist, assess, help, adseduós, assiduous, prāisedo, preside, resedo, reside, supsédiom, subsidy (but supsisdo, v.i.); Greek έδρα is IE sedrā, chair, throne, face of a geometric solid,  hence loan translations komsedrós, sitting in council, komsédriom, council (from which Hebrew sanhedrīn, from Gk. συνέδριον), eksedrā, exedra,  kátsedrā, cathedra, katsedrlis, cathedral, bishop’s see, qetrasédrom, tetrahedron; Also, from Latin sḗdēs, see, seat, residence, sēdā, sedate, settle, calm down; prefixed and suffixed pisedio, sit upon (pi, from epi); cf. also Umb. sersitu, Gk. ἕζομαι, Skr. sad, Av. nišaðayeiti, O.Pers. niyašayadan, Pers. nešastan, Toch. sätk, Arm. nstil, O.Pruss. sīdons, Lith. sėdėti, sėdžiu, sėsti, sėdu  Ltv. sēdēt, sēdu, Slav. sěděti, sědi̯ǫ (O.C.S. сѣдѣти, сѣждѫ, Russ. сиде́ть, сесть Pol. siedzieć), sěsti, sędǫ (cf. O.C.S. сѣсти, сѫдѫ, O.Russ. сѣсти, сяду, Pol. siąść, siądę), Gaul. essedum, O.Ir. saidim, Welsh seddu, Ir. suidh.

45. For PIE gher with the sense of enclose, compare Gmc. gardaz (cf. Goth. gards, O.N. garðr, O.E. geard, O.Fris. garda, Du. gaard, O.H.G. gart), also Lat hortus, cohors, Osc. herííad, Gk. χορτος, Skr. gṛhá-, Phrygian -gordum, Lith. žardas, Ltv. zārds, Gaul. gorto, O.Ir. gort, Welsh garth, Bret. garz, Alb. garth-; Hitt. gurtas. Balto-Slavic terms related to this root and beginning with [g] – as Lith. gardas, O.C.S. gradu, Rus. gorod, -grad, etc. –  are own developments not affected by satemization, sometimes explained as borrowings from Gmc.

46. IE ghrḗdhus, hunger, gives Gmc. grēduz (cf. Goth. gredus, O.E. grædum, cognate with Skt. grdh, Gk. -gyros) and adjective ghrēdhighós, hungry, as Gmc. grēdigaz (cf. O.S. gradag, O.N. graðr, O.Eng. graedig, Eng. greedy). From the same PIE root is ghŕtā, urge on, encourage (from Lat. hortārī, giving eksghŕtā, exhort), ghŕis, grace, favor (from Gk. χαρις, which gives ghrísmā, charism, or (A)sughristíā, Eucharist), ghrē, it is necessary (from Gk. χρη, which gives ghrēstós, useful, and ghrēstomńdhia, chrestomathy). With the – possibly older – sense of bowels, compare Gmc. gernjan (O.N. gorn, O.Eng. gearn, O.H.G. garn, Eng. yarn), O.E. gorst, Lat. hernia, horrēo, Gk. χορδή, χέρσος, Skr. hirah, harṣate, Av. zaršayamna, Arm. dzar, Lith. žarna, Ltv. zarna, Russ. зор, O.Ir. garb, Welsh garw, Alb. derr; Hitt. karat.

47. PIE root cei(w), live, oldest *g^weih₃, with metathesized variant cjo- (older *g^wjeh₃, coloured to *g^wjoh₃) gives derivatives zero-grade cwós, living, alive, as Gmc. kwi(k)waz (cf. Goth. quis, O.N. kvikr, O.E. cwicu, O.Fris. quik, O.H.G. quec, Ger. keck, Eng. quick), Lat. uīus; verb cīwo, live, as Lat. uīuere; cīwoparós, viviparous, living, alive, as Lat. vivipărus, and shortened cī(wo)párā, viper, “bearing live young”, from Lat. vipĕra (both from IE parós, v.s.) and further suffixed form c(wo)tā, life, Lat. vita, in cī(wo)tālís, vital. Compare also O.E. cwifer, Lat. uīuō, Osc. bivus, Gk. βίομαι, Skr. ǰīvaiti, Av. gaēthā,  jiġaēsa, O.Pers. gaithā, Pers. zēstan, Toch. śo/śai, Arm. keam, O.Pruss. giwа, giwāntei, Lith. gýti, gyventi, Ltv. dzīvs, dzīt, O.C.S. живѫ, жити, Russ. жить, живу́, Polish żyć, żyję, Gaul. Biturīges, O.Ir. bethu, Welsh byd.

For another common PIE adjective meaning “lively”, compare bherḗs, as Lith. bruzdu, O.C.S. brŭzŭ, Russ. borzoj, Pol. bardzo, Gaul. brys, Ir. bras, and possibly Lat. festīnō (but cf. dhes).

48. PIE root ser- gives sérōs, “guardian”, heroe, Gk. ἥρως, and general verbal base serw, guard, protect, in sérwā, keep, preserve, Lat. seruāre, sérwio, serve, as Lat. seruīre, and sérwos, slave, servant, Lat. seruus (forms also found in other Italic dialects, cf. Osc. serevkid, ‘protection’, ooserclom, usually considered borrowings from Etruscan); cf. also O.Ind. Av. haraiti, (pasuš)haurvō, “shepherd”, Gmc. sarwia, Bal. serg-, Sla. stergt.

49. To refer to a person, man, PIE had root man, extended as Indo-Iranian mánus, Germanic mánuos and Balto-Slavic o-grade móng(i)os. Compare Gmc manwaz/mannaz (cf. Goth. manna, O.N. maðr, O.E. mann, O.S., O.H.G. man, Ger. Mann), Skr. manuḥ, Av. manu-, Pers. mærd, Kurd. mêr, Lith. žmogus, O.C.S. mǫžĭ, Russ. муж, Polish mąż, Kamviri mânša. Compare also with Ger. Mensch, Du. mens, Nor.,Da. menneske, Swe. människa, Ice. manneskja, from Gmc. manniskaz, IE mánuiskos, person, human (cf. Romany manush, from Skr. manuḥ). A common European borrowing is mbhudhománu(o)s, from compound ḿ(bhi)+bhúdhom (from Gmc. budam, O.N. bodh, “command”) + mánuos, ombudsman (with the exception of some regionally translated terms, as Fr. médiateur, Spa. defensor del pueblo, etc).

Some names for ‘German’, ‘Germany’, (Fr. allemand, Spa. alemán, Pt. alemão, Cat. alemany, Celtic, like Welsh Almaeneg, Bret. Alaman, Indo-Iranian, as Pers. almani, Kurd. elman; and even non-IE, as Turkish Alman, Arabic almanya, Azeri Alman, Basque alemanera, Guarani Alemaniagua, Malagasi alema, Khmer alaman, Tagalog Aleman), in turn a loan word from the tribal name that the neighboring Alamanni used for themselves. The term comes from Gmc. compound Ala-manniz, PIE reconstructed Alománuis, with first word from PIE root al-, therefore originally meaning lit. “all men”.

PIE al, all, is attested in Germanic and Celtic. Germanic derivatives include alnós, all, as Gmc. allaz (cf. Goth. alls, O.N. allr, O.E. all, eall, eal-, O.Fris., O.H.G. al), and alo- in compounds.

50. PIE stem (s)neu- (cf. Skr. snavan-, Arm. neard) is an extension of (s)nē, spin, sew. It gives derivatives nḗtlā, needle, (with instrumental suffix -tlo-), as Gmc. nēthlō (Goth. nēþla, O.S. nathla, O.N. nál, O.E. nǣðlæ, O.Fris. nedle, O.H.G. nādala), snot, snood, as Gmc. snōdō, or nḗmn, thread, as Gk. νημα. Compare also Lat. neō, Gk. νειν, νηθω, Skr. snājati, Ltv. snāte, O.C.S. niti, Russ. нить, O.Ir. snáthat, Welsh nyddu, nodwydd.

51.  For derivatives of PIE root sti, hide, stone, also thicken, stiffen, compare stóinos, stone, Gmc. stainaz (cf. Goth. stains, O.N. steinn, O.E. stan, O.H.G., Dan. steen, Ger. Stein), and stjr, solid fat, from Gk. στεαρ; compare also Gk. stia, stion, Skr. stjajat, Av. staj, O.C.S. stena.

52. PIE root pūr/pwr, fire, bonfire, is probably derived from an older *peh₂wr̥ (cf. Hitt. paḫḫur) and has an irregular Genitive pūnós. Compare Goth. fōn, Gk. πυρ, Osc. purasiai, Umb. pir, Skr. pu, Toch. por/puwār, Arm. hur, O. Pruss. panno, Polish perz, Cz. pýř. The suffixed form pū́ris, fire, gave Gmc. fūris (cf. O.N. fúrr, O.E. fȳr, O.Fris. fiur, M.Du. vuur, O.H.G. fiur).

53. IE per means lead, pass over, as in adj. perwntós, rocky, noun pérwntos, mountain, as Skr. parvataḥ; pertā, cliff, rock (possibly earlier “bedrock”, “what one comes through to”), as Lat. petra, Gk. πέτρα (both dissimilated as *pétrā, which means ‘feather’ in MIE, v.i., pértus, place for crossing over, ford as Gmc. ferthuz (cf. O.N.fjörðr, Eng. firth) or peritós, experienced (from Lat. peritus). Other derivatives include o-grade poro, journey, travel, as Gmc. faranan (cf. Goth. faran, O.E. fara, Ger. fahren, Eng. fare); póros, journey, passage, way, as Gk. πόρος; pórṇā/pórṇom, feather, as Gmc. farnō (cf. O.E. fearn, M.Du. varn, Ger. Farn, Eng. fern), Skr. parn̥am.; also, pōrio, lead, lead across, bring to safety, as Gmc. fōrjan (cf. O.E. gefera, O.H.G. fuoren, M.E. fere, Ger. führen). With zero-grade, common IE words are prtús, going, entrance, passage, modern ford, harbor, port, as Gmc. furthuz (cf. O.Fris. forda, O.E. ford, O.H.G. furt, Ger. Furt), Lat. portus, O.Welsh rit, Welsh rhyd; and prt, meaning “gate” as fem. noun and “carry” as a verb, as in Lat. porta and portāre respectively.

The name Portugal is MIE Prtukálē, Port of “Kale”, as Lat. Portucale, with the second term of uncertain origin, although some relate it to PIE sources akin to Lat. Gallus, “Gallic”, Lat. calĭdus, “warm”, or Lat. calx, “lime”.

54. English word “true” comes from O.E. triewe (W.Saxon), treowe (Mercian), faithful, trustworthy, from Gmc. treuwjaz (cf. Goth. triggws O.N. tryggr, O.Fris. triuwi, Du. getrouw, O.H.G. gatriuwu, Ger. treu), ultimately from adj. drewiós, related to dréwom, tree, oak, wood,  Gmc. trewan (cf. Goth. triu, O.N. tré, O.S. trio, O.E. trēow, O.Fris. tre), both then alternative forms of deru-, giving dórus (Gen. derwós), tree, oak, fig. firm, strong, as in Lith. drútas, Welsh drud, O.Ir. dron. Compare other IE derivatives from deru-, also drew-: Lat. durus, Gk. δρυς, δόρυ, Skr. dru, dáru, Av. dāuru, O.Pers. duruva, Pers. deraxt, Toch. or, Arm. tram, caṙ, O. Pruss. drawine, Lith. derva, Ltv. dreve, O.C.S. дрѣво, O.Rus. дрова, Rus. дерево, Pol. drwa, Gaul. Dervus, O.Ir. daur, derb, Welsh derwen, Alb. drusk, dru/drû, Kam. dâa; Hitt. ta-ru, Luw. tarweja-, and also A.Mac. darullos.

55. For IE root leu, loosen, divide, cut apart, compare léuwā, Gmc. lawwō (Swe. lagg, Eng. lag). For zero-grade forms, compare lwo, loosen, release, untie, from Gk. λύειν, lúēs, plague, pestilence (< “dissolution, putrefaction”), from Lat. luēs, and also selwo, loosen, untie, as Lat. soluere (from PIE s(w)e-lwo-).

56. PIE bélis, power, strength, gives O.H.G. pal, O.Fris. pall, Lat. dē-bĭlis, Gk. βελτίων, Skr. bálīyān, báliṣṭhas, bálam, Phryg. balaios, O.Ir. adbal, M.Ir. bolg, Welsh balch, Kamviri bâlim. O.C.S. бол͂ии, бол͂ьши, болѥ, Russ. большо́й, Ukr. більший, Bulg. бо́ле.

57. Indo-European father, patḗr, is possibly an earlier compound formed by baby-speak sound like pa (compare modern baby words in your language beginning with p+vowel), probably earlier *ph₂-, and IE common suffix for relatives -ter, a pattern followed in “mother” and other family members, too. It evolved as Gmc. fader (cf. Goth. fadar, O.N. faðir, O.E. fæder, O.H.G. fater), Lat. pater, Osc. patír, Umb. pater, Gk. πατήρ, Skr. pitár-, Av. pitar-, O.Pers. pitā, Pers. pedar, Toch. pācar/pācer, Arm. hair, Gaul. ātir, O.Ir. athir, Welsh gwaladr, Kashmiri petū́r, Osset. fyd.

58. Indo-European bhátis, appearance, phase, gives Greek φάσις (phasis). It is derived from bhanio, “bring to light”, cause to appear, show, as Gk. φαινειν (phainein), from PIE base bhā, shine. It gives also derivatives bhantós, visible, bhántom, phantom, bhantasíā, fantasy, énbhatis, emphasis, enbhatikós, emphatic, epibhánia, epiphany, bhaniómenom, occurrence, circumstance, also phenomenon, from Lat. phaenomĕnon, in turn from Gk. φαινόμενον, etc.

59. For PIE ana, breathe, blow, spirit, compare Goth. uzanan, andi, O.N. anda, önd O.E. eðian, ōþian, Lat. animus, Osc. anamum, Gk. anemos, Skr. ānas, aniti, Av. åntya, Toch. āñcäm/āñme, Arm. anjn, hov, Lith. anuoti, O.C.S. vonja, Russ. von', O.Ir. anál, animm, Welsh anysbryd, anadl, Alb. ajë/âj.

60. The reconstruction of common words for each day in a Seven-Day Week is almost impossible, if not through the adoption of numbers, from one to seven, like that used by the Roman Catholic Church (Lat. Feriae, used in Portuguese, see dhēs), Armenia, Greece, Iran, as well as in Arabic, Georgian and Hebrew. However, there seems to be a common old (pagan) pattern, followed in Greek (and partly in Sanskrit), and loan-translated from it in Latin and from this in Germanic.

PIE dhēs (possibly an extension of dhē, set) is the reconstructed base for words applied to various religious concepts, as zero-grade dhesós, god, Gk. θεός, in apodhesótis, apotheosis, ṇdhesós, atheistic, ṇdhesísmos, atheism, endhesosiasmós, enthusiasm (Gk. ἐνθουσιασμός), pántdhesiom, pantheon, Gk. Πάνθειον; full-grade dhḗsiās, holidays, Lat. fēriae, (O.Lat. fēsiae), dhḗstos, festive, Lat. fēstus, in dhēstēiuós, festive, dhḗstēiuālis, festival; also, zero-grade dhásnom, temple, as Lat. fānum, in dhasnatikós, fanatic, prodhasnós, profane.

NOTE. In Latin, the s before m, n, l, disappears, and the preceding vowel shows a compensatory lengthening; cf. Duenos: cosmis > cōmis; Columna Rostrata -resmom > rēmum; fasnom > fānum, *habēsna > habēna, *catēsna > catēna; candēsla > candēla, *quaisēsla > querēla. , etc.

For PIE “feast”, a more common verbal root wes was used, cf. Goth. wisan, ON vist, O.E. wesan, O.H.G. wist, Lat. vescor, Skr. anuvāvase, Av. vastra, Lith. švest, Pol. wesele, O.Ir. fíach, Welsh gwest, Hitt. weši.

A.    The word for “day” (as opposed to “night”) in Indo-European comes usually from a common dínom, originally “daylight”, derived from PIE root diw-, shine, and it is still found in Eng. lent, from Gmc. compound langa-tinaz, (probably lit. “longer daylight”, cf. Goth. sintīns, O.S. lentin, O.E. lencten, M.Du. lenten, O.H.G. lenzo); compare also Lat. nіn-dinae (also general diēs, as in Eng. diurnal, from base *djeu-), Skr. dinam, O.Pruss. deinan, Lith. diena, Ltv. diena, O.C.S. дьнь, Russ. день, Pol. dzień, O.Ir. denus, día, Welsh dydd, Alb. gdhin.

B.    Germanic ‘day’ comes from old PIE agh-, day, older *h₂eg^h, considered as a span of time, hence “24 hours”, cf. Skr. ahar, from IE ághōr, Av. azan, from IE ághōn, and Gmc. dagaz, reconstructed as MIE (dh)aghos, with first dh- of uncertain origin, although some relate it to PIE root dhech, burn, (which gave derivatives with the sense of “hot season”, “summer”, thus maybe mixed with -agh- in Germanic to mean “hot part of the day”, daylight); cf.  Lat. fovēre, Gk. -πτανος, Skr. dahati, dah, Av. dažaiti, Pers. dāġ, Toch. tsäk/tsäk, O. Pruss. dagis, Lith. dagas, degti, Ltv. degt, OCS žešti, Russ. sžigat', žgučij, Polish żgę, Ir. daig, Alb. djek.

Here is a brief explanation of possible loan-translations of the names of week days into Modern Indo-European in three different calendars, Pagan (like Greek, Roman and Germanic, as well as Sanskrit calendars, the last followed in Indian timekeeping, i.e., modern Hindi, Telugu, Gujarati, Bengali, and even Tamil and Malayalam, beginning in Monday), International (beginning in Monday, similar to the traditional Slavic one), and Christian (counting in Dhḗsiās, feasts, from Ecc.Lat. Feriae, see dhēs), viz:

I. Monday should be Mntós (déinos), “(day) of the moon”. Compare Gmc. Monan-dagaz, L.L. Lunæ dies, Gk. ημερα Σεληνης, and Skr. Soma vāsara (Beng. Shombar). Also, ‘neutral’ Prwóm (déinom), “First (day)”, and Christian Seqondh (Dhḗsiā), “Second (Feast)”, i.e. “Feast  following Sunday”.

PIE seq, follow, gives derivatives Gmc. sekw- (cf. ON seggr, O.E. secg, O.H.G. beinsegga), Lat. sequor, Gk. hepomai, Skr. sacate, Av. hačaitē, O.Pers. hačā, Toch. säk/, Lith. sekti, Ltv. sekt, Ir. sech Welsh hep. Common modern MIE words include Latin derivatives séqtā, sect, séqelā, sequel, seqéntiā, sequence, komseqénts, consequent, ekseqo, carry out, accomplish, ekseqotós, accomplished, carried out, ekseqotā, execute, obhséqiom, present, obhseqiós, obsequious, perseqio, persecute, proseqio, prosecute, supseqio, follow immediatly, supseqénts, subsequent; seqestḗr, “follower”, mediator, depositary, seqestrā, kidnap, séqestrom, sequestrum, kidnapping; seqós, following, along, alongside of, as in ekstrīnseqós, from outside, extrinsic, entrīnseqós, from inside, intrinsic; séqnom, identifying mark, sign (from “standard that one follows”), Lat. signum, also séqnā, sign, adseqnā, assign, komseqnā, consign, deseqnā, designate, design, reseqnā, return, give back; suffixed sóqios, ally, companion (“follower”), in soqiabhilís, sociable, soqiālís, social, sóqietā, society, soqio-, socio-, adsoqiā, associate, komsoqiā, consociate, dissoqiā, dissociate.

II. Tuesday is Eiserós (déinos), “(day) of the anger”, as it is the day of the gods of war; cf. Gmc. Tiwaz-dagaz, (althoug Tiw, from PIE deiw-, thus , is in fact etymologically related to Gk. Zeus and Lat. Iove, v.i.), loan-translated from L.L. Martis dies, ημερα Αρεως, “day of Ares”, and compare also Skr. Mangala vāsara (Beng. Monggolbar), identified with Karttikeya, the god of war. Compare for PIE eis, originally maybe denoting “passion, vigor”, hence ‘anger, wrath’: cf. Lat. īra, Gk. οίστρος, ἱερος, Άρης, Skr. isirah, Av. aēšma (as in Asmodeus, v.i.). English “iron” comes from Gmc. īsarnan (cf. O.S. isarn, O.N. isarn, O.E. isærn, M.Du. iser, O.H.G. isarn), borrowed from Celtic isarnon (cf. O.Ir. iarn, Welsh haiarn), from IE ájos (gen. ájesos, PIE root ajos-, older h₂ei̯os), originally metal (“vigorous, powerful material”); compare also Gmc. ajiz, (cf. Goth. aiz, O.N. eir, O.E. ār, O.H.G. ēr, ehern), Lat. aes, Umb. ahesnes, Skr. ayaḥ, Av. ayaṅh, Pers. āhan, Gaul. Isarnodori, O.Ir. iarn, Welsh haearn. Also, Alteróm (déinom) or Christian Triti (Dhḗsiā).

III. Wednesday comes from North Gmc. Wodenaz-dagaz, “day of Odin” (cf. O.N. Ōðinsdagr, O.S. odensdag, O.E. Wōd(e)nesdæg, O.Fris. wōnsdei, M.Du. Wudensdach; but, from uncertain origin, compare O.Fris. wērendei, Du. wonseldach, South. Ger. guotentag, and even Eng. Wednesday and Du. waansdei, as well as Low Ger. and Du. dial. with initial g-), loan-translated originally from L.L. dies Mercurii, “day of Mercury”, in turn from Gk. ημερα Ερμου, “day of Hermes”, Lat. Mercurius (from merk-, Etruscan root for various economic aspects, as in mérkātos, market, or merkā, buy) and Gk. Ἑρμῆς, (also from unknown origin, with some relating it to ἕρμα, a square pillar), both equivalent to Skr. Budha vāsara (Beng. Budhbar), “day of Budha”, the name of the planet Mercury, a son of Chandra, the moon, in Hindu mythology, but the three are unrelated to the Nordic concept of Odin, the “sky-god”, equivalent to Lat. Jupiter or Gk. Zeus.

III.A. Indo-Aryan term Budha (and also Buddha) comes from IE zero-grade verb budho, O.Ind. bodhati, budhjate, budhanta, “wake, observe, perceive, enlighten”, and noun búdhis, intelligence, reason, from Skr. bodhih, and *budhtós (MIE bustós) awaken, enlightened, from Skr. buddhaḥ, all from PIE root verb bhéudh, wake, rise up, be aware, and also make aware; compare also Gmc. biudanan (cf. Goth. anabiudan, O.N. bjóða, O.E. bēodan, O.H.G. biotan), Lat. fidere, foedus, Gk. peithein, pistis, Av. buidjeiti, Pers. bēdār-šudan, O.Pruss. budē, Lith. budinti, Ltv. budīt, O.C.S. beda, bljudo, Russ. будет, Pol. budzić, O.Ir. buide, Welsh bodd, Kamviri bidi. Due to the common meaning of anounce, hence message, messenger, herald, a concept akin to Sanskrit and Germanic sources (exactly the role of loan-translated Mercurius and Hermes), a  good possibility for Wednesday in a pagan week would be Budhonós (déinos), “messenger/message’s (day)”, búdhōn, message, messenger, bode, as in Gmc. budōn (cf. O.N. boð, O.E. boda, bodian, O.S. gibod, O.H.G. gibot).

III.B. The new, non-pagan model (cf. M.H.G. mittewoche, M.L.G. middeweke, Du.dial. Midswiek, Fris. metswik, Norw. dial. mækedag, Mod.H.G. dial. Mittag, Eng.dial. Mid-week, and also unrelated Ice. þriðjudagur, “third-day”), influenced by Gothic, was probably adopted from Gk. or Lat. missionaries, avoiding the old pagan week, and is also found in Slavic – and Hungarian – srēda, lit. “middle” (cf. O.C.S. srĕda, Rus. sreda, Pol. sroda), loan-translated from Lat. media hebdomas, itself a loan word from Gk. εβδομάδα, from ἑβδομάς, seven, from PIE séptm (->Gk. ‘hebdom’, seven, “period of seven days or years”), which was translated in L.Lat. as septimāna, from Lat. septem; compare also words for “week” in Srb. седмица, Cro. sedmica, Bulg. седмица, Bret. sizhun, Lith. savaitė, Hindi haftā, Hung. hét (from an Iranian source, cf. Kurdish heft, “seven”). Then, Medhj (Séptmā), “mid-week”, as well as ‘neutral’ Tritióm (déinom) or Christian Qetwrt (Dhḗsiā).

Other Indo-European terms for common periods of days:

III.B.1. From IE wíkom comes Eng. week, Gmc. wikon (cf. Goth. wikon, O.N. vika, O.E. wice/wican, O.Fris. wike, M.Du. weke, O.H.G. wecha, Ice. vika, even Finnish viikko), originally “a turning” or “succession”, from PIE weik/weig, bend, wind; cf. Gmc. wik- (e.g. Eng. wicker), waikwaz (Eng. weak), Lat. uix, uicia, Skt. visti.

III.B.2. Other common word for “week” in Slavic is O.C.S. ten dzień (cf. Pol. tydzień,  Slovak týždeň, Slovene teden, Ukr. тиждень, Cz. týden), translated as MIE tod déinom, “this day”.

III.B.3. Ltv. nedēļa is a loan word from Rus. неделя (nedélja), originally Sunday in Slavic languages, IE Nedhḗlā, Russ. не-делать, “no-work(ing day)”, composed of:

For PIE ne, no, compare Gmc. ne-, na-, (cf. Goth. ni, ON né, O.E. ne, O.H.G. ne, Eng. no), Lat. nē, ne-, Osc. ne, Skr. na, Av. na, O.Pers. na, Pers. ن, O.Pruss. ne, Lith. ne, Ltv. nē, Russ. не, нет, Polish nie, O.Ir. ní, Welsh ni, na, Alb. nuk, Hitt. natta, Luw. ni-, Lyc. ni-, Lyd. ni-; also common is zero-grade suffix n- [n̥], as Gmc. un-, Lat. in-, Umb. an-, Gk. a-, an-, Skr. a-, an-, Toch. an-/en-, Arm. an-, frequently found in common IE compounds, as ṇcowijós, “man without cows” (cf. Skr. ágos, Gk. aboúteō, O.Ir. ambuæ), ṇmrtós, inmortal (cf. O.Ind. amŕ̥ta-, Av. aməšа-, Gk. ἄμβροτος), ṇudrós, without water (cf. Skr. anudrás, Gk. ánydros), ṇgnōtós, unknown (cf. Skr. ájñātas, ágnōtos), ṇgn(a)tós, unborn, etc. A common derivative is MIE nóin, no, none, originally “not one, not any” (from n(e)-óinos), giving Gmc. nean (cf. O.S., M.L.G. nen, O.N. neinn, M.Du., Du. neen, O.H.G., Ger. nein), maybe analogous to Lat. nōn, non- (although probably a nasal extension of o-grade negative particle nē).

PIE root dhē, set, put, place, (see dhē for MIE derivatives) gives Gmc. dēdiz (Eng. deed, Ger. Tat), dōn (Goth. gadēþs, O.E. dōn, O.H.G. tuon, O.N. dalidun, O.S. duon, O.Fris. dua, M.E. de, Ger. tun), Lat. faciō/fēcī, facilis, condere, abdomen, fās, Osc. faciiad, Umb. feitu, Gk. θήκη, θέμα, θέτω, τίθημι, Skr. dádhāti, Av. dađāiti, O.Pers. adadā, Phryg. dak-, Toch. täs/täs, Thrac. didzos, Arm. ed, Lith. dedù, dė́tis, Ltv. dēt, O.C.S. благодѣт, дѣти, дѣлати,  Russ. деть, делать, Pol. dziać; działać, Gaul. dede, Welsh dall, Alb. ndonj; Hitt. dai, Lyc. ta-.

IV. Thursday is, after the Greek and Roman calendars, a day consacrated to Zeus and Jupiter respectively; cf. Gk. ημερα Διος (Gk. Zeus has gen. Dios), Lat. Iovis dies, both the “sky-gods” – compare also Hindu Guru vāsara, “day of the preceptor”, for Vjasa, the supreme preceptor of mankind, and Beng. Brihoshpotibar, “day of Brihoshpoti” (equivalent to Jupiter), the guru of the Devas and the arch-nemesis of Shukracharya, the guru of the Danavas. In loan-translated Gmc. thonaras-dagaz (cf. O.N. Þorsdagr, O.E. Þurresdæg, O.Fris. thunresdei, M.Du. donresdach, Du. donderdag, O.H.G. Donares tag), the day is dedicated to a Germanic god whose name is related to PIE root (s)téna, resound, thunder, as in Lat. tonāre, Skr. tánjati, Pers. tundar, Pashto taṇā; compare for IE tńros, thunder, Gmc. thunraz (cf. O.N. þorr, O.E. þunor, O.Fris. thuner, M.Du. donre, O.H.G. donar). Therefore, Diwós (déinos), “sky-god’s (day)”, Qturóm (déinom), “fourth (day)” or Penqt (Dhḗsiā), “fifth (Feast)”.

V. Friday is “Frigga’s day”, wife of Odin in Germanic mythology, goddess of heaven and married love, loan-translation of Lat. Ueneris dies, “day of (planet) Venus”, in turn translated from Gk. ημερα Αφροδιτης, “day of Aphrodite”, the goddesses of love, lust and beauty; also, Skr. Shukra vāsara (Beng. Shukrobar), where Shukra is the name for Venus, one of the Navagrahas, a male planet for the Hindus and named after the Guru Shukracharya. Ἀφροδίτη comes from Phoenician ^cAštart, “Astarte”, influenced by Gk. ἀφρός, foam, having parallels to Indo-European “dawn” god(desse)s, as Vedic Skr. Ushas, Lat. Aurora (reinterpreted as a-Decl. *Ausós-ā), IE Áusōs. Latin Venus comes from wénos, love, sexual desire, loveliness, beauty, charm, from PIE wen, strive for, desire; as wenuo, Gmc. winnwan (“seek to gain”, O.E. wynn, Eng. win), wnē [‘u̯n̥-e:], as Gmc. wunēn, (“become accustomed to, dwell”, cf. O.E. wunian, Ger. wohnen, Eng. won), wonēio, as Gmc. wanian (“accustome, train”, cf. O.E. wenian, Eng. wean), wnsko, as Gmc. wunskan (“desire”, cf. O.E. wyscan, Ger. Wünsch, Eng. wish); or wenésnom, Lat. uenēnum, “venom”. Compare also Lat. uenia, uēnāri, Skr. vanas-, vanam, vanati, vanik, vanijah, Av. vanaiti, Toch. wani/wna, wins-/winsk, Arm. gun, Cel. wenj (cf. O.Ir. fine, O.Bret. coguenou, Welsh gwen, Bret gwenn); Hitt. wen-, went- (for more on this root v.i. Sla. voin’, “soldier”). For Frigg, compare Gmc. Frije-dagaz (cf. O.N. frijadagr, O.E. frigedæg, O.Fris. frigendei, M.Du. vridach, Du. vrijdag, Ger. Freitag), from IE príjā, woman, wife – also Freya, goddess of love and beauty in Norse mithology – Gmc. Frijō (cf. O.N. Freyja, O.E. frea, O.S. frua, M.Du. vrouwe, Ice. Freyjudagr, Ger. Frau, Eng. Freya), itself from PIE root prai, like, love, which gave prijós, noble, dear, beloved, as Gmc. frijaz (cf. Goth. freis, O.E. freo, M.H.G. vri, Ger. frei, Du. vrij), and other derivatives related to free, love, friend, like prítus, peace as Gmc. frithuz (O.H.G. fridu, L.Lat. exfredāre, Eng afraid), príjonts, “beloved”, friend, as Gmc. frijands (cf. Goth. frijonds, O.N. frændi, O.E. frēond, O.Fris. friund, M.H.G. friunt, Ger. Freund); also, compare Gk. πραος, Skr. priyah, prīṇāti, Av. frā, Ltv. prieks, O.C.S. prĕjati, prijatelji, Russ. приятель, Polish przyjaźń, sprzyjać, O.Ir. ríar, Welsh rhydd; therefore, Ausosés (déinos), “dawn’s day”, Penqtóm (déinom), “fifth (day)”, Sekst (Dhḗsiā), “sixth (Feast)”.

VI. Saturday is a partial loan-translation from Lat. Saturni dies, “day of Saturn” (where Saturnus was an Italic god of agriculture, poss. a borrowing from Etruscan), itself translated from Gk. ημερα Κρονου, “day of Cronus”; compare also Skr. Shani vāsara (Beng. Shonibar), from Sani, one of the nine Navagraha or primary celestial beings, embodied in the planet Saturn, MIE Satúrnos. Compare O.E. Sæterdæg/Sæternesdæg, Du. zaterdag, O.Fris. saterdi, M.L.G. satersdach; Ir. dia Sathuirn, Welsh dydd Sadwrn. However, an ancient Nordic custom is preserved in O.N. laugardagr, Dan. lørdag, Swed. lördag,  lit. “bath day” (cf. O.N. laug, “bath”). Ger. Samstag (from O.H.G. sambaztag) appears to be from Vulg. Lat. sambatum, from Gk. *sambaton, a colloquial nasalized variant of sabbaton “sabbath”, also attested in Slavic (cf. O.C.S. sabota, Rus. subbota, simbata) and even Hung. szombat; also Romance (cf. Fr. samedi, It. sabato, Spa. sábado, Pt. sabado). The sabbath is observed by the Jews as a day of rest, and comes from Hebrew shabbath, prop. “day of rest”, from shabath “he rested”. Hence, only two names appear to be correct for MIE, IE pagan Satúrni (déinos), and Christian Sabbátom.

VII. Sunday, the last day of the week –  first according to religious tradition –, is the “day of the sun”, Lat. dies solis, loan-translated from Gk. ημερα Ηλιου, compare also Skr. Ravi vāsara (Beng. Robibar); according to Hinduism, Ravi is Surya, the Sun. Therefore, the pagan version should be Sāwlós (déinos), “Sun’s day”, gen. of Swel, sun, v.i., and in Christian tradition, following Lat. dominicus dies, Gk. Κυριακος, (from Gk. κυριος, lord, with a different IE base), Kuriakós/Domūnikós (déinos).

Indo-European root kew, swell, also vault, hole, gives o-grade kówos, hollow, as Lat. cauus, as in kówā (as V.Lat. cova), cave, kowésna, cavern, kówitā, cavity, komkowós, concave, ekskowā, excavate; kówilos, hollow, kowilíā, belly, as Gk. κοιλία, and kówilom, coelom, as in Eng. derivatives -cele, celiac, -coel; kówos, hollow place, cavity, as in kówodeiā, poppy head, Gk. κώδεια, which gives kowodeínā (-ínā, “alkaloid”), codeine; zero-grade shortened kúmolos, heap, mass, cumulus, as Lat. cumulus, kumolā, cumulate, or adkumolā, accumulate; zero-grade kūrós, “swollen”, strong, powerful, hence kū́rios, master, lord, as Gk. κυριος, as in kūriakós, “of the lord”, as in MIE Kūriakóm [dṓmn], Lord’s [dome] (from “house”, see dem-), as Late Greek kūriakon [dōma] (cf. Med. Gk. kūrikon, into W. Gmc. kirika, as O.E. ciricem, Eng. church, Ger. Kirche), used for houses of Christian worship since c.300, especially in the East, though it was less common in this sense than ekklēsíā (from Gk. ekklesía, see kela) or basílikā (from loan adj. basilik, royal, Gk. βασιλική, from basiliós, king); kūweio, swell, and derivative kū́mn, a swelling, wave, with Greek derivatives as Eng. cyma, cyme, cymo-, kymo-; enkūiḗnts, pregnant, as Lat. inciēns (as Eng. enceinte).

Indo-European kela, shout, older *kelh₂, gives verb klāuo (from *klah₂), roar, low, as Gmc. khlōwan (cf.  O.E. hlōwan, M.Du. loeyen, O.H.G. hluoje); suffixed klāmā, call, cry out, claim, as Lat. clamāre, as in klāmnts, clamant, klmōr, clamor, adklāmā, acclaim, deklāmā, declaim, eksklāmā, exclaim, proklāmā, proclaim, reklāmā, reclaim; kolā, call, as Gmc. khalōn (cf. M.Du. halen, Frank. halon, O.Fr. haler, M.E. halen, maybe also O.E. geholian); komkáliom (from kom-, together, and zero-grade *kĺh->IE kalio), meeting, gathering, council (“a calling together”), komkaliā, conciliate, rekomkaliā, reconcile; kálendās, calends, from Lat. kalendae (first day of the month, when it was publicly announced on which days the nones and ides of that month would fall), giving kalendásiom, calendar; kalo (variant klē), call, as in ekkalo, summon forth, which gives ekklēsíā,  assembly, church, as Gk. ἐκκλησία; kalā, call, call out, as Lat. calāre, as in enterkalā, intercalate, nomnklātṓr, nomenclator; suffixed klārós (from zero-grade *kĺh), bright, clear, as in deklārā, declare; zero-grade klástis, summons, division of citizens for military draft, hence army, fleet, from Lat. classis, also class.

61.  MIE Januários is probably from IE jános, Lat. Janus, ancient Ita. deity, guardian god of portals, patron of beginnings and endings, lit. "gate, arched passageway" from PIE eí, go (cf. Skt. janaḥ). Other Roman months are Februários (pl. of Lat. februum, purifications, unkn. origin), Mártios, (from Ita. god Mars, Mamers in Oscan, borrowed from the Etruscan deity Mariś as a war/agricultual god Mars and equated with Greek Ares by interpretatio romana), Aprílis (from Ita. godd. Venus, Etruscan Apru, possibly from Gk. aphrodite), Mágios (from Lat. Maia, from PIE meg, great), Júnios (from Lat. Juno, related to Eng. young), Djówilios (from Lat. Iūlius Caesar, from djeus, god), Augústos (from Lat. Augustus Caesar, from aug), Septḿmris, Oktṓmris, Nowńmris, Dekḿmris, all from IE numbers following the Roman calendar (which began in March) and adj. suffix -m(ns)ris, Lat. -bris, from PIE base mēn-, month.

a.     For PIE eí, go, walk, compare Goth. iddja, O.E. ēode, Lat. ire, iter, Umbrian ier, Oscan eítuns, Gk. ειμί, ἰών, Skr. ēti, imas, ayanam, Av. aēiti, O.Pers. aitiy, Toch. i, O.Pruss. eit, Lith. eiti, Ltv. iet, O.C.S. iti, idǫ Rus. идти, Polish iść, Gaulish eimu, O.Ir. ethaim, Kamviri ie; Luw. i-.

b.    For PIE meg, great, compare derivatives mégos (Skr. maha-, Gk. μέγας, Phryg. meka-, Pers. meh), megilós (“much”, as Gmc. mekilaz, cf. Goth. mikils, O.E. micel, O.N. mikill, O.H.G. mihhil, M.E. muchel), magiós (as Lat. major), magnós (Lat. magnus); cf. Skr. mahayati, mahat-, Av. mazant, Illyr. mag, Toch. māk/mākā, Arm. mec, Gaul. Magiorīx, O.Ir. mochtae, Welsh Maclgwn, Alb. madh, Kurd. mezin; Hitt. makkes.

c.     PIE root jeu, “vital force, youthful vigor”, and its suffixed zero-grade juwen- (cf. Skr. yuván-, Lat. iuuĕn-is), give júwntis, youth, as Gmc. juwunthiz/jugunthiz (cf. Goth. junda, O.S. juguth, O.E. geogu, O.Fris. jogethe, M.Du. joghet, O.H.G. jugund), and juwnkós, young, as Gmc. juwungaz/jungaz, (Goth. juggs, O.S., O.Fris. jung, O.N. ungr, O.E. geong, M.Du. jonc, O.H.G. junc) and Celtic yowankos (cf. Gaul. Jovincillus, O.Ir. ac, Welsh ieuanc); compare also Umb. iuengar, Av. javan, Pers. javān, Lith. jaunas, Ltv. jauns, Slavic junъ, junьcь (cf. O.C.S. юнъ, O.Rus. ѹнъ, O.Bulg. юн, юне́ц, юне́, O.Cz. junec, junoch, Pol. junosza, junoch).

d.    PIE aug, increase, gives Gmc. aukan (“eke”, cf. Goth. aukan, O.N. auka, O.E. eacan O.Fris. aka), Lat. augere, Umb. uhtur, Gk. αύξων, αὐξάνειν, Skr. ojas-, ugra, Toch. ok/auk, O.Pruss. auginnons, Lith. augu, aukstas, Ltv. augt. Common modern derivatives include augonṓmn, nickname, as Gmc. aukanamon); augméntom, increase, augment, áugtiōn, auction, from Lat. augere; augē, create, from L.Lat. augēre, which gives augtós, created, áugtos, creation, augtṓr, author, creator, and augtoritiā, authorize; augū́r, diviner (< “he who obtains favorable presage”, from “divine favor, increase”), from Lat. augur, as in enaugurā, inaugurate; augsíliom, aid, support, assistance, from Lat. auxilium, and augsiliāsiós, auxiliary. Also, variant metathesized form weg-, o-grade and extended with -s, wógso, grow, Gmc. wakhsan (O.S., O.H.G. wahs, O.N. vax, O.E. weaxan, Du. was, Ger. Wachs, Eng. wax), and wógstus, waist, Gmc. wakhstus (cf. Goth. wahstus, O.N. vaxtr, Swed. vstm, O.H.G. wahst); from the same IE base, cf. Lith. vakas, O.C.S. vasku, Rus. vosk, Pol. wosk.

e.     Compare for MIE mēns (gen. mntós), moon, month, cf. Lat. mēnsis, Gk. μην, Skr. māsah, Av. maoṅh, Pers. māh, Toch. mañ/meñe, Arm. amis, O. Pruss. menig, Lith. mėnuo, Ltv. meness, O.C.S.  meseci, Russ. mesjac, Pol. miesiąc, O.Ir. mí, Welsh mis, Alb. muaj, Kurd. mang, Kamviri mos, Osset. mæj. In Germanic, “month” comes from IE mḗnōts, Gmc. mænoth- (Goth. menoþs, O.N. manaðr, O.E. monað, M.Du. manet, Du. maand, O.H.G. manod), “moon” from IE mḗnōn, Gmc. menon-, (cf. Goth. mena, O.N. mani, O.E. mōna, O.S., O.H.G. mano, O.Fris. mona, Du. maan). See also Proto-Indo-European mē, measure.

62. For season, year, time, PIE had different words

A.    From root jēr-, as jḗrom, year, season, cf. O.Pers. (duši)jaram, Gmc. jæram (“year, season” cf. Goth. jer, O.S., O.H.G. jar, O.N. ar, O.E. ġēar/gēr, Dan. aar, O.Fris. ger, Du. jaar, Ger. Jahr); jṓrā, hour, season, from Gk. hώρα (“hour, season, year” as in Mod.Eng. horoscope, hour); also, compare Lat. hornus, Av. jare, O.C.S. jaru, probably originally "that which goes a complete cycle", from older verbal root *h₂eí, go, v.s. 

A.a. The best option for “season” in MIE would be to use jērós dáitis, “year-time”, loan-translated from IE compounds like Ger. Jahreszeit, Fris. jiertiid, Du. jaargetijde, Swe.,Da. årstid, Rom. anotimp, Lith. metų laikas, Russ. время года, Pol. pora roku, Cz. roční období, Slov. letni čas, Bret. koulz-amzer, etc., as a compound from gen. of jḗrom, followed by d(á)itis, time, as Gmc. tidiz “division of time” (cf. O.S. tid, Du. tijd, O.H.G. zit, Ger. Zeit), suffixed form of IE dā, divide, cut up; cf. dmos, Gk. δῆμος, also Skr. dati, O.Ir. dam. and Gmc. tīmōn.

A.b. Greek word for “season” is IE epsogh, Gk. εποχή, epoch, from PIE roots epi, on, at, and sogh, o-grade of segh, hold, as in Gk. εχειν, Skr. saha-, sahate; other derivatives are séghōs, victory (<“a holding or conquest in Battle”), as Gmc. sigiz- (cf. O.N. sigr, O.E. sige, O.H.G. sigu, sigo, as in Siegfried, M.Du. seghe), seghús, seghuerós, severe, as Lat. seuērus, sghol, school, as Gk. σχολή, sghḗmn, scheme, as Gk. σχῆμα.

A.c. Also, MIE sátiōn, sowing, season, from L.Lat. sessĭōnis (O.Fr. seison, Eng. season, Du. seizoen, Rom. sezon), from Lat. satiō, “a sowing”, from pp. satum of verb siso, Lat. serere, a reduplicate verb from IE sē, sow, as Gmc. sēanan (Goth. saian, O.N. sá, O.E. sāwan, M.Du. sayen, O.H.G. sāen), Skr. sāyaka, Toch. sāry, Lith. seju, sėti, Ltv. sēt, sĕti, O.C.S. sejo, sejati, Russ. сеять, Pol. siać, Welsh hil, O.Ir. sí, and Hitt. sai. It gave also sḗmēn, seed, semen, sperm (cf. Lat. semen, Umb. semenies, O.H.G. samo, O.Prus. semen, O.C.S. seme, Rus. семя, Ger. Samen, even Finn. siemen), and sḗtis, seed, as in Gmc. sēdiz (cf. O.N. sað, O.S. sad, O.Fris. sed, M.Du. saet, O.H.G. sat, Ger. Saat).

A.d. Other word is státiōn, from Lat. statĭōnis (cf. Spa. estación, Pt. estação, Cat. estació), from IE sta(n)t-, giving Gmc. standan (cf. O.S., Goth.,O.E. standan, O.N. standa, O.H.G. stān, Swed. stå, Du. staan), and other derivatives like IE statós, L. status, Gk. στατός, Lith. statau, ultimately from PIE stā, stand, with derivatives meaning “set down, make or be firm” and “place or thing that is standing”, as in IE stōdhā, stallion, studhorse, steed, from Gmc stōdō (cf. O.N. stoð, O.H.G. stuot, O.E. stod, M.H.G. stud, M.L.G. stod, Ger. Stute, and also O.C.S. stado, “herd”, Lith. stodas, “a drove of horses”); compare L. sistere, stō (from older stāiō) Umb. stahmei, Osc. staíet, Gk. ἵστασθαι, ἱστός, στῦλος, Skt. tiṣṭhati, Av. hištaiti, O.Pers. aištata, Pers. istādan, -stan (country, lit. “where one stands”), Phryg. eistani, Toch. ṣtām/stām, Arm. stanam, O. Pruss. роstāt, stacle, Lith. stojus, Ltv. stāt, O.C.S. стояти, стоѬ, stanu, staru (old, lit. “long-standing”), O.Russ. стати, стану, Pol. stoję, stać, O.Ir. táu (from older stāiō), sessam, Welsh gwastad, Alb. shtuara; Hitt. išta, Luw. išta-, Lyc. ta-

A.e. Hindustani mausam (Hindi मौसम, Urdu موسم) comes from Persian موسم, in turn from Arabic مَوْسِم., weather, season, time.

B. Romance languages have words derived from PIE átnos, year (from “a period gone trough”), which gave Germanic and Italic words, cf. Goth. aþnam, Lat. annus (modern Romance Fr.,Rom. an,It. anno, Pt. ano, Spa. año, Cat. any), Osc.,Umb. akno-, from IE at, go, as in Skr. atati.

C. Modern Slavic languages have different words for “year, season”.

C.a Some dialects have IE o-grade ghodhós, originally fit, adequate, belonging together (v.i. for Eng. good), which developed into O.C.S. годъ, time, “pleasing time", giving O.Rus. годъ, Cro. godina, Bulg. година  (cf. Ukr. годi, Pol. gody, Cz. hod, Bulg. годе́, Srb. го̑д, Slov. gȏd), also adopted in Ltv. gads (cf. ‘proper’ Latvian derivatives, gadigs, gadit), ultimately from PIE base ghedh, unite, “be associated, suitable", also with the meaning of “good”.

C.b. Another common Slavic word is Pol., Cz., Slovak rok, Ukr. рік (also, cf. Russ. с-рoк), from O.C.S. рѫка, arm, hand (cf. Russ. рука, Ukr.,Bel. рука́, Slov. róka, Pol. ręka), also found in Lith. rankà (gen. rañką), Ltv. rùoka, “hand” (cf. Russ. rаnсkо, gen. rānkan, Lith. renkù, rinkaũ, riñkti, parankà) with the year as a notion of a “cubit measurement of time”; the word is believed to be ultimately from a source akin to a nasal extended IE wrnkā [‘wr̥-n̥-ka:], from PIE wer, turn, bend  (maybe through O.Ind. vrag, “corner, angle”, vrangr, “scythe”).

C.c. Finally, compare Slovene leto, Russ.pl. лет, Pol. lata, Cz., Slovak. leto (cf. also Russ. лето, Pol. lato, “summer”), possibly cognate with O.Ir. laithe, day, reconstructed as common PIE lḗtom.

D. In Celtic, a common isolated root is found, MIE bhled-, cf. O.Ir. bladain, Ir. bliain, Sc. bliadhna, Welsh blwyddyn, Bret. bloaz, Corn. bledhen.

E. For “year” in modern Iranian languages, compare Av. sarәd, O.Pers. ýâre,  Persian سال (sâl), Kurdish sal, Pashto kāl, Zazaki serre, all from PIE jēr-, already seen.  Also borrowed in Hindustani as sāl (Urdu سال, Hindi साल), although some Indo-Aryan languages derive it from Skr. वर्षम् (varsham, as Marathi वर्ष, varsha, and Malayalam varsham), “year, summer, rain season”, a word which some derive from the sound of the rain, from a Dravidian source.

F. Another PIE word with a similar meaning is wet-, year, age, (cf. Alb. vit), which gives derivatives wétrus, yearling, as Gmc. wethruz (wether, cf. Goth. wier, O.S. wethar, O.H.G. widar, Ger. Widder), wétōs, year, age, old, as Lat. vetus, veteris or Gk. ἔτος; wétolos/m, yearling, as Lat. vitulus and Gk. ἔταλον; cf. Skr. vatsaḥ, Osc. vezkeí, O.Lith. vetušas, O.C.S. vetŭcŭ, Russ. ве́чный, Pol. wiotchy, O.Ir. fethim, Corn. guis, Alb. vjet; Hitt. witt.

I For Summer:

I.a. PIE root séma, summer, gives Sḿaros, and also sémā, season; compare Gmc. sumaraz (cf. O.N.,O.S. sumar, O.E. sumor, O.F. sumur, M.Du. somer, O.H.G. sumar), Skr. samā, Av. hama, Toch. ṣme/ṣmāye, Arm. amaṙ, Kurdish havîn; it is also a common Celtic word, cf. O.Ir. samain, samuin, samfuin, Ir. Samhain, Sc. Samhradh, O.Welsh ham, Welsh haf, Bret. hañv.

I.b. For Lat. aestātis (cf. Fr. été, It. estato, Cat. estiu, also secondary Spa. estío, Pt. estio) a MIE Aistā (< *aidht(o)-tā) is reconstructed, from common PIE root aidh, burn, illuminate; cf. Lat. aedēs, Gk. αἴθω, O.Ind. šṭakā, índdhḗ (nasalized form), Av. aēsma-, Lith. íesmė, O.Cz. niestějě, Slov. istė́je.

I.c. Another common form is derived from Wésr, spring (vide infra), as Lat. veranum (tempus), “(time) of spring” (cf. Spa. verano, Pt. verão, Rom. vară), Lith.,Ltv. vasara, Alb. verë.

I.d. For the common Slavic word, MIE reconstructs n. Lḗtom (cf. Russ. лето, Pol. lato, Cz. léto, Srb.-Cro. ljeto).

II. MIE has for Autumn, Fall, different Indo-European words referring to “harvest”.

II.a. Kérpistos, harvest, Gmc. *kharbistas (cf. Goth. ƕaírban, O.N. hverfa, O.S. hervist, O.E. hærfest, O.H.G. hwerban, Du. herfst, Ger. Herbst), from PIE kerp, pluck, gather, harvest (cf. Lat. carpere, Gk. καρπος, Skr. krpana-, Toch. kārp/kärp, Lith. kerpu, O.Ir. carr, M.Ir. cerbaim, Welsh par).

II.b. Ósōn (Gen. Osnós), from older *h₃esh₃en, harvest, as in Balto-Slavic, giving O. Pruss. assanis, Rus. осень, Ukr. осінь, Pol. jesień, Srb.-Cro. jesen, Slovak jeseň, and also osnoio, earn, from Gmc. aznojanan (cf. Goth. asans, O.N. önn, O.E. earnian, esne, O.H.G. aran, Ger. Ernte); cf. also Lat. annōna, Gk. οπωρ, Arm. ashun.

II.c. Autúmnos (Lat. Autumnus, of Etruscan origin), is the common word in Romance languages and English.

II.d. In Baltic ‘autumn’ is found as Ltv. rudens, Lith. ruduo, originally “red season”, derived from PIE reudhós, red, ruddy. Compare Gmc. rauthaz (cf. Goth. rauþs, O.N. rauðr, O.E. rēad, Dan. rød, O.Fris. rad, M.Du. root, O.H.G. rōt), Lat. ruber, (Lat.dial. rufus), Osc. rufriis, Umb. rufru, Gk. ἐρυθρός; Skr. rudhira-, Av. raoidita-, Toch. rtär/ratre, O.C.S. rudru, Rus. рдеть, румяный, Pol. rumiany; Lith. raudas, Ltv. ruds, Gaul. Roudos, O.Ir. ruad, Welsh rhudd, Bret. ruz.

III. For MIE Winter.

III.a. There is a common PIE base Ghéimn, snow, winter; compare O.N. gói, Lat. hiems (from alternative IE ghjéms), Gk. χειμα (Mod. Gk. χειμώνας), Skr. heman, Av. zimo, Pers. زمستان (zemestān), dai, Toch. śärme/śimpriye, Arm. dzmeṙ, Old Prussian semo, Lith. žiema, Ltv. ziema, OCS zima, Russ. зима, Polish zima, Gaul. Giamillus, Ir. gaimred, Sc. Geamhradh, Welsh gaeaf, geimhreadh, Bret. goañv, Alb. dimër/dimën, Kurdish zivistan, zistan, Kamviri zẽ; Hittite gimma-. From the same root, compare ghéimrinā, hibernate, from Lat. hibernāre, from which also (témpōs) ghéimrinom, Lat. (tempus) hibernum, “time of winter” (cf. Fr. hiver, Ita.,Pt. inverno, Spa. invierno, Rom. iarnă), or ghímriā [‘g^hi-mr̥-i̯a], chimera, from Gk. χίμαιρα.

III.b. In Germanic, however, the word comes from Gmc. wentruz (cf. Goth. wintrus, O.N. vetr, O.E., O.Fris., Du. winter, O.S., O.H.G. wintar, Ger. winter, Dan., Swed. vinter), thus IE Wéndrus, “watery season”, from PIE root wed-/wod-/ud-, wet, water. Compare for IE general wódr/údr (or nasalized wóndr/úndr), Gmc. watar, (cf. Goth. watō, O.N. vatn,O.E. wæter, O.H.G. wazzar, O.Fris. wetir, Du. water), Lat. unda, Umb. utur, Gk. ύδωρ, Skr. udan, Toch. wär/war, Phryg. bedu, Thrac. udrēnas, Arm. get, O. Pruss. wundan, Lith. vanduo, Ltv. ūdens, O.C.S., O.Russ. вода, Pol. woda, O.Ir. uisce, Welsh gwer, Alb. ujë, Kashmiri odūr; also, Hitt. watar, and Ancient Macedonian bedu. And for alternate form údros, water, “water-creature”, otter, cf. Gmc. utraz (cf. O.N. otr, O.E. oter, O.H.G. ottar, Swed. utter, Dan. odder, Du. otter,), Lat. lutra, Gk. ὑδρος, Skr. udra, Av. udra, Lith. ūdra, O.C.S. vydra, Russ. vydra, O.Ir. uydr, odoirne Ir. odar, Osset. wyrd; also, derivative ú(n)deros, belly, compare Ger. wanast, Lat. uterus, uenter, Skr. udara, Av. udaras, Lith. vėdaras, Ltv. vēders. As with IE “fire” (pwr-egnís), Indo-European had two different roots for “water”, one inanimate, referring to an inanimate substance, and the other, apos, water (animate), referring to water as a living force (cf. Sk. apaḥ), which comes probably from an older IE II root *h₂p-, giving PIE pískos, fish, older *h₂p-isko-, cf. Gmc. fiskaz (cf. Goth. fisks, O.N. fiskr, O.E. fisc, O.H.G. fisc, Du. vis, Ger. Fisch), Lat. piscis, Russ. peskar', Polish piskorz, O.Ir. asc, Welsh pysgodyn.

IV. For Modern Indo-European Spring:

IV.a. The common PIE word was Wesr [we-sr̥]; compare O.N. var, Swe. vår, Lat. vēr, from which L.Lat. prima vera (cf. Spa.,Pt.,It. primavera, Rom. primăvară), Gk. έαρ, Skt. vasantah, Pers. ب (bāhār), Kur. bihar, Lith. vasara, Lith.,Ltv. pavasaris, O.C.S. vesna, Russ. весна, Pol. wiosna, Gael. Earrach, and even Turkish ilkbahar, bahar, a borrowing from Iranian.

IV.b. The spring is usually considered the first season, hence the common resource of taking words for ‘fore’ or ‘early’ followed by ‘year’, as MIE Prōjḗrom/Prājḗrom; cf. Dan. forår, Du. voorjaar, Ger. Frühjahr, Bul. пролет, Srb.-Cro. proljeće, Slovene pomlad, Alb. pranverë, originally lit. “fore-year”; also, Ger. Frühling, from M.H.G. vrueje, or Cz. jaro, Slovak jar, from jḗrom. Also, in French, the older primevère was substituted in the 16^th c. for printemps, O.Fr. prin tans, tamps prim, from Lat. tempus primum, lit. “first time, first season”, which also influenced Mid.Eng. prime-temps; cf. also Faer. maitiid. For “fore” in compounds, there is IE prā [pr̥-ā], before, as Gmc. fura (cf. Goth. faiura, O.N. fyrr, O.E. fore, O.Fris. fara, O.H.G. fora, Ger. vor-), Gk. πάρος, Skr. purā, Av. paro, Hittite para-, as well as IE pro-/prō, before, in front of, as Gmc. fra- (cf. Goth. fram, O.N. frā, O.E. fram, Scots fro, Ger. vor-), Ita. pro-, Gk. προ-, Ind. pra-, Slav. pra-, Celt. ro-; although Eng. “fore” itself comes from PIE per/pr-, base of prepositions with meanings like forward, through, and other extended senses.

IV.c. Another common Germanic term is Dlonghodéinos, as Gmc. langa-tinaz, lit. “long-day”, (cf. O.S. lentin, O.E. lencten, M.Du. lenten, O.H.G. lenzo, Eng. Lent, Du. lente, Ger. Lenz), from dlo(n)ghós – maybe an older common, difficult-to-pronounce dlnghós [dl̥-n̥-‘g^hos] –, long, as Gmc. lanngaz (cf. Goth. laggs, O.N. langr, O.E.,O.H.G. lang, M.Du. lanc), Lat. longus, Gk. δολιχός, Skr. dīrgha, Av. darəga, O.Pers. darga, Pers. derāz, O.Pruss. ilgi, Lith. ilgas, Ltv. ilgs, OCS dlŭgŭ, Russ. dolgij, Pol. długi, Gaul. Loggostalētes, O.Ir. long, Welsh dala, Alb. gjatë, Kashmiri dūr, Hitt. dalugaes; and IE déinos, a root meaning “day”, vide infra. The compound probably refers to the increasing daylight in Spring.

63. Indo-European Djéus, Déiwos (the later formed by e-insertion of zero-grade diw-), means originally shine, usually sky, heaven, hence sky god; cf. Gmc. Tīwaz (O.N. Tyr, Eng. Tiu, also in Tuesday), Lat. deus, Iovis, as in Iuppiter (from older Djóus patér, “o father Iove” cf. O.Ind. devaḥ pitar, Gk. Zeus pater), Gk. Ζεύς, gen. Διός, Skr. devaḥ (as in Devanāgarī), O.Pers. daēva-(as in Asmodeus), O.C.S. deivai, Lith. devas. From zero-grade djóus is extended djówis, Lat. Iouis, “Jupiter”, as adjective djowiliós, “descended from Jupiter”, Lat. Iūlius (name of a Roman gens), into Djówilios, July. The form déiwos, as Gmc. tīwaz, Lat. deus, gives deiwísmos, deism, déiwitā, deity, deiwidhakós, deific, addéiwos, bye (“I commend you to God”, cf. Fr.,Eng.,Ger. adieu, It. addio, Spa. adiós, Pt. adeus, Cat. adeu, Nor. adjø, Swe. adjö, Gk. αντίο, Slo. adijo, Lux. äddi, Papiamento ayo, etc.); also, from Lat. dīuus, loan words dwos, famous artist (fem. dwā, diva), and deiwinós, divine; déiwēs, rich (“fortunate, blessed, divine”), as Lat. diues; diwiós, heavenly, as in Diwiánā, Diana, as Lat. Diāna, moon goddess; variant djḗus (from Lat. djē-), day, as in djewālís, daily, dial, djewāsiós, diary, djḗtā, daily routine, diet, national or local legislative assembly (alteration influenced by djē from díaitā, way of living, diet, from Gk. δίαιτα into Lat. diaeta), djousnós, diurnal, “of the day”, daily, as in djousnālís, diurnal, daily, hence as noun “breviary, journal” (as Fr. journal), and also “salary” (as Prov. jornal), djóusnom, day, djousntā, day, day’s travel, journey, medhīdjḗus, midday (from medhiei djḗus, from locative of médhjos, middle), midday, which gives medhīdjewonos, “of or at midday”, also meridian, and adjective, medhīdjewonós, “of or relating to a meridian, meridional” from Lat. merīdiānus, qōtidjewonós, quotidian; dejalós, clear, evident, as Gk. δήλη, as in psūghodej(a)likós, psychedelic, (see bhes) an English loan word using Greek loan words. Also, with the sense of shining, clear, day, compare Goth. sinteins, Lat. diēs, Gk. δήλος, Skt. diva, O.Ind. dinam, Welsh diw, Bret. deiz, Arm. tiw, Prus. deinan, Lith., Latv. diena, O.C.S. дьнь, Pol. dzien, Ukr., Rus. день, etc.

The origin of Germanic word for “God” is probably Gmc. guthan (cf. Goth. guþ, O.E. god, O.N. guð, Du. god, Ger. Gott), from zero-grade ghútom, God, ”the invoked” (cf. Skr. huta-, invoked, an epithet of Indra), from PIE ghwa, call, invoke, although some trace it to ghúde “poured, libated”, from PIE root gheu, pour, pour a libation; as Gmc. giutan (cf. Goth. giutan, ON gjta, O.E. guttas, O.H.G. giozan, Ger. giessen, Eng. gut), Lat. fūtis, Gk. χειν, Skr. juhoti, Av. zaotar, Pers. zōr, Toch. ku, Phryg. Zeuman, Arm. dzulel. Originally neutral in Gmc., the gender of “God” shifted to masculine after the coming of Christianity. Following Watkins, “(...)given the Greek  facts, the Germanic form may have referred in the first instance to the spirit immanent in a burial mound”, therefore O.E. god was probably closer in sense to Lat. numen, a Latin term for the power of either a deity or a spirit that informs places and objects. A better word to translate Deus might have been Æsir, Gmc. ansuz (cf. O.N. Ás, O.E. Ós), a name for the principal gods of the pantheon of Norse mythology, but it was never used to refer to the Christian God. It survives in English mainly in the personal names beginning in Os- (cf. Oswin, Oswald, Osborn, etc.). The Germanic noun is believed to be derived from PIE (á)ńsus 'breath, god' related to Skr. asura and Av. ahura, with the same meaning; though in Sanskrit asura came to mean 'demon'. v.i. for more on meaning shift for substituted deities in IE languages. Ánsus is in turn related to ána, breathe, v.s.

64. Prōbhastṓr comes from Lat. professor, agent noun from profitieri, from Lat. pro-, “forth”, and bháto (p.part. bhastós<*bhattós), “acknowledge, admit, confess”, as Lat. fateri (pp. fassus), zero-grade from PIE roots bhā, speak, and pro-, already seen, also from Late Latin prōbhastā, profess, kombhastā, confess, etc.

65. MIE Kolumnélis, Colonel, comes from It. colonnella “commander of a column of soldiers at the head of a regiment”, from compagna colonella, “little column company” from IE kólumnā, Lat. columna, “projecting object, pillar, column”, from o-grade of PIE kel, be prominent, also hill. Column comes in turn from o-grade kól(u)men, top, summit, from Lat. culmen, which gives verb kol(u)menā, culminate, raise, lift up, from L.Lat. culmināre. Other derivatives from the same root are kolobhṓn, summit, end, colophon, from Gk. κολοφών; zero-grade kĺnis, hill, as Gmc. khulniz (cf. O.N. hallr, O.E. hyll, M.Du. hill, L.Ger. hull), kĺmos, islet in a bay, meadow, as Gmc. khulmaz (cf. O.N. holmr, O.E. holm), extended form ekskeldo (compound of PIE eks- and extended form keld-), raise up, elevate, also  “be eminent, excel”, from Lat. excellere. Compare also Goth. hallus, Lat. collis, celsus, Gk. κολονος, Skt. kutam, Lith. kalnelis, kelti.

66. Indo-European reg meant originally probably straight line, hence “move or direct in a straight line”, rule, guide, lead. Compare common derivatives like verb reg, rule, lead straight, put right, as Lat. regere, Gk. ορεγειν, Av. razeyeiti; rgtós, right, straight, upright, righteous, wise, true, as Gmc. rekhtaz (cf. Goth. raihts, O.N. rettr, O.E. riht, O.H.G., O.Swed. reht, Ger. recht, Eng. right, straight), Lat. rectus, Gk. ὀρεκτός, O.Pers. rahst-, aršta-, Pers. rahst, Lith. teisus, O.Ir. recht, Welsh rhaith, Breton reiz; rēgs, ruler, leader, king, as in rēgiós, royal, from Celtic (cf. Gaul. -rix, O.Ir. ri, gen. rig, Gael. righ) into Gmc. rīkjaz, “rich, wealthy”, (cf. Goth. reiks, O.N. rikr, O.E. rice, O.H.G. rihhi, O.Fris. rike, Du. rijk, Ger. Reich, Eng. rich); rēgs, king, leader, as Lat. rēx, regis, which gives rēgālís, royal, kingly, regal; rḗgēn, king, rajah, and verb rule, from Skr. rājā, rājan-, and rājati.; rḗgolā, straight piece of wood, rod, hence “rule”, and as verb “regulate”, from Lat. rēgula and L.Lat. rēgulāre; o-grade rogā, ask (<”stretch out the hand”), from Lat. rogāre; and lengthened rōgio, from Gmc. rōkjan - rakjan (cf. O.N. rækja, O.E. reccan, O.H.G. giruochan, Ger. geruhen, Eng. reck). Derivatives from Lat. rēctus include rḗgtom, rectum, rēgénts, regent, rḗgimēn, rḗgiōn, disrēgo, (compound with Lat. dis-, “apart”) to direct, disrēgtós, direct, komrēgo, to correct, komrēgtós, correct, rēgtṓr, rector, disrēgtṓr, director, etc.

67. North: from PIE root ner- below, under, also on the left, hence, “with an eastward orientation”, north, as north is to the left when one faces the rising sun, giving Nŕtos as Gmc. nurthaz, O.N. norðr, O.E. norð; cf. Skt. narakah, Gk. enerthen, O.U. nertrak.

Originally PIE had (s)kew(e)ros, north, northwind, cf. W.Gmc. skūraz (cf. Goth. skura, O.N. skúr, O.S., O.H.G., O.E. scūr, Ger. Schauer, Eng. shower), Lat. caurus, Arm. c'urt/c'urd, Lith. šiaurus, šiaurys, šiaure, O.C.S. severu, Russ. sever.

I. Other IE derivatives for “left” are:

I.1. Indo-European laiwós, left, as Gmc. laewaz (cf. ON lǽn, O.E. lǣw. O.H.G. lēwes), Lat. laevus, Gk. laios, Illyr. Levo, Lith. išlaivoti, O.C.S. lĕvŭ, Russ. levyj, Polish lewy. English “left” is maybe also derived from the same root, through an extended laiwt-, although probably from a source meaning “weak”; cf. O.E. lyft, E.Fris. luf, Du. dial. loof, M.Du., Low Ger. luchter, luft.

Common Germanic vocabulary include Ger. link, Du. linker, from O.H.G. slinc, M.Du. slink, related to O.E. slincan “crawl”, Swe. linka “limp”, slinka “dangle”.

I.2. PIE seujós, left, was the source for Skr. savya, Av. haoya, Toch. -/saiwai, OCS šujĭ, Russ. šuj, Welsh aswy.

I.3. A reconstructed IE sen is in the origin of Romance senesterós, left, on the left side, as Lat. sinister (opposite of dexter), meaning prop. “the slower or weaker hand” [Tucker], but Buck suggests it's a euphemism, connected with the root of Skt. saniyan “more useful, more advantageous”.

Spa. izquierda, Gl.-Pt. esquerda, Cat. esquerra are late borrowings from Basque ezkerra.

II.   Indo-European derivatives for “right”:

II.1. The opposite of ner in PIE was probably deks, right, hence Deksinā/Deksiós south (facing east), giving Goth. taíhswa, O.H.G. zeso, Lat. dexter, Oscan destrst, Umb. destrame, Gk. δεξιός, Skr. dakṣina, Av. dašina, Kashmiri dạchūn, Toch. täk/, Lith. dešinė, OCS desnaya; desnŭ, Russ. десница, Gaul. Dexsiva, O.Ir. dech, Welsh deheu, Alb. djathtë. Common derivatives from Latin are deksterós, right, on the right side, hence skilful, dexter, as, as in dekstéritā, dexterity, or ambhideksterós, ambidextrous.

II.2. The usual derivative for right (in both senses, direction and “straight, just”) in modern Romance and Germanic languages is still made from oldest rgtós (cf. Eng. right, Ger., Du. recht, Da.,Nor. rett, Swe. rätt, Spa. recto, Pt. reto), ultimately from PIE reg, although a usual Romance derivative comes from prefixed deregtós, as Lat. directus (cf. Fr. droit, Spa. derecho, It. diritto, Pt. direito, Rom. drept, Cat. dret), and a usual Germanic one is suffixed regtikós, as Gmc. rektikhaz (cf. Ger. richtig, Da. rigtig, Nor.,Swe. riktig); also found in both, Lat. and Gmc. is adj. komregtós, correct (as Ger.,Da. korrekt, Fr.,Du. correct, Spa. correcto, Pt. corretto).

II.3. Another usual word in Slavic languages comes from PIE verbal root bhew (older *bheuh₂), be, exist, grow, (see more on bhew), as zero-grade reduced suffixal form -bhw-, as in probhwós, “growing well or straightforward”, hence right, upright, correct, as Slavic prōvos (cf. O.Russ., O.C.S. правъ, Pol. prawy, Cz.,Slk. pravý, Sr.-Cr.,Slo. pràv), Lat. probus, O.Ind. prabhúṣ.

68. South: related to base of Gmc. sunnon, from súnom, sun, (swén-/sún- are alternate nasalized roots for PIE swel) with the sense of “the region of the sun”, Ger. Süd, Süden are from a Du. pronunciation. O.Fr. sur, sud (Fr. sud), Sp. sur, sud- are loan words from Gmc., perhaps from O.N. suðr. Compare Gmc. sawel/sunnon (Goth. sauil, sunno, O.N. sól, sunna, O.Eng. sigel, sunne, O.H.G. sunna) Lat. sōl, Gk. ήλιος, Skr. sūras, Av. hvarə, Pers. -farnah-, Kamviri su, Toch. swāñce/swāñco, Alb. (h)yll, O. Pruss. saule, Lith. saulė, O.C.S. slunice, O.Russ. сълньце, Pol. słońce, Welsh haul, O.Ir. súil.

69. The East is the direction in which the Sun breaks, from PIE aus, dawn; cf. Gmc. austo/austraz (O.N. austr, O.E. ēast, O.H.G. ōstra, Du. oost, Ger. Osten), Lat. aurōra, auster, Gk. αυριον (aurion), ηως (ēōs), Skr. uṣās, Av. ušastara, Lith. aušra, Ltv. ausma, Russ. утро, O.Ir. usah, fáir, Welsh gwawr. For Modern Indo-European we will use generally Áustos as Gmc. East, and Austrós as Gmc. Eastern (austraz) and for Lat. auster; as, Austrorḗgiom, Austria (cf. Gmc. austro+rikjan, Ger. Oesterreich), Austráliā (from Lat. Terra Australis, MIE Austr(lís) Térsā, Southern Land), etc.

70. West: Pie root wes- is root for words meaning evening, west, as west(e)ros/wesperos/weskeros Gmc. westraz (cf. O.N. vestr, Du. west, Ger. West), Gk. έσπερος (^hesperos), Lat. vesper, O.C.S. večeru, Lith. vakaras, Welsh ucher, O.Ir. fescor, perhaps an enlarged form of PIE base we-, to go down (cf. Skt. avah), and thus lit. “direction in which the sun sets”.

71.  Lat. platea: courtyard, open space, broad street, comes from Gk. plateia (hodos), broad (way), fem. of pĺtus, broad, Gk. πλατυς, from PIE stem plat, spread out, broad, flat. Cf. Gmc. flataz; Lat. planta; Skt. prathati, Gk. pelanos, Hitt. palhi; Lith. platus, plonas; O.Ir. lethan. Related to plāk, to be flat; cf. Gmc. flakaz (Eng. flake), Lat. plācāre, Gk. plax. Both extended forms of PIE base pĺā [‘pl̥-a:] (from pel), flat, spread; cf. Gmc. felthuz (Eng. field), Lat. plānus, Gk. plassein, Sla. polje, etc.

IE plat is an extension of PIE root pel, flat, and spread. Compare péltus, flat land, field, as Gmc. felthuz (cf. O.Fris. feld, O.E. feld, M.H.G. velt, Ger. Feld, Eng. field, even Finnish pelto, “field”, from Proto-Germanic), plrus, floor, ground, as Gmc. flōruz (cf. O.N., O.E. flor, M.H.G. vluor, M.Du. vloer, Ger. Flur, Eng. floor) or Welsh llawr, plānós, flat, level, even, plain, clear, from Lat. plānus; pĺmā, palm, as Lat. palma; plānḗtā, “wandering”, planet, as Gk. πλανήτης, from plānā, wander (<”spread out”), from Gk. πλανασθαι; also zero-grade pladhio, mold, “spread out”, as Gk. πλασσειν (plassein), hence plastikós (<*pladhtiko-), pládhmā, -pladhia, plastós(<*pladhto-), etc. In Slavic there are o-grade polís, open, and pólā, broad flat land, field.

The old territory of the tribe of Polans (Polanie), MIE Polános, had a name which became that of the Polish state in the 10^th century. MIE Póliskā, Pol. Polska (Eng. Poland, “land of the Poles”), expressed both meanings, and comes from IE adjectival suffix -isko-, as in poliskós, polish, Póliskos, Pole, f. Polisk dńghūs or n. Póliskom, polish language. The name of the tribe comes from a PIE source akin to Polish pole, “field, open field”), from IE pólā.

72. PIE wer, speak, is the source of zero-grade wŕdhom, word, as Gmc. wurdan (cf. Goth. waurd, O.N. orð, O.S., O.E., O.Fris. word, Du. woord, O.H.G. wort), full-grade wérdhom, verb, from Lat. verbum (originally “word”), as in adwérdhiom, adverb, and prōwérdhiom, proverb, prāiwérdhiom, preverb; wério, say, speak, as Gk. ειρειν, from which werioneíā, irony, as Gk. εἰρωνεία; wrētṓr, public speaker, rhetor, as Gk. ῥήτωρ, from which wrētṓrikā, rhetoric, as Gk. ῥητορική, or wrḗmn, word, rheme, as Gk. ῥημα;  compare also, with the sense of speak, command, agree, call, summon, lie, etc., Umb. uerfalem, Skr. vrata-, Av. urvāta, Old Prussian wīrds, Lith. vardas, Ltv. vārds, OCS vračĭ, Russ. врать, O.Ir. fordat, Hitt. ueriga.

73. Indo-European ékwos, ékwā, and kŕsos, have also another synonym in Celtic and Germanic – maybe a borrowing from Gaulish –, márkiā, mare, as Gaul. markan, O.Ir. marc, Welsh march, Bret. marh, and Gmc. markhjon, cf. O.N. marr, O.E. mearh, also fem. O.S. meriha, O.N. merr, O.E. mere/myre, O.Fris. merrie, O.H.G. marah, Eng. mare, Ger. Mähre.

74. PIE root bak, used for “staff”, is the source for bákolom, rod, walking stick, as Lat. baculum, and diminutive bákillom, staff, bacillum, and possibly nbakillós, imbecile, weak, feeble. Also, for báktrom, rod, from Gk. βάκτρον, and its diminutive baktḗriom, bacterium, little rod, for Gk. βακτηριον. French loan words débâcle (MIE debákolā) and baguette (from It. bacchetta, from bacchio, in turn from Lat. baculum) are also modern derivatives. Compare also Lith. bakstelėti, Ltv. bakstīt, O.Ir. bacc, Welsh bach.

75. For Indo-European bhel, light, bright, also gleam, compare Gmc. blaik- (cf. Goth. bala, O.N. bāl, blár, bleikr, O.E. blæcern, blǣcan, blǣwen, O.H.G. blecken, bleich, blāo), Lat. flagrāre; flāvus, Oscan Flagiúi; Flaviies, Gk. φλεγειν; φαλος, Skr. bharga; bhālam, Phryg. falos, Toch. pälk/pälk, Illyr. balta, Thrac. balios, Arm. bal, O.Pruss. ballo, Lith. blagnytis, baltas, Ltv. balts, Russ. belyj, Polish biały, Gaul. Belenos, Ir. beltene, blár, Welsh bal, blawr, Alb. ballë. Thus e.g. Modern Indo-European Bhaltikós, Baltic, Bhelārús, Belarus, “White Ruthenia”, and possibly Bhélgiā/Bhélgikā, from the Celtic tribe of the Bhélgās, Belgae for the Romans.

76. IE téuta means originally people, tribe; as Gmc. theudo (cf. Goth. þiuda, O.N. þjóð, O.E. þeoð, O.H.G. diutisc, M.Du. duitsch, Eng. Dutch, Ger. Deutsch, Ice. Þýska , L.Lat. theodice, It. tedesco), Osc. touto, Umb. totam, Illyr. teuta, O.Prus. tauto, Lith. tauta, Ltv. tauta, Gaul. teuto, O.Ir. tath; Hitt. tuzzi. Lyc. tuta. Today the Germanic adjective equivalent to MIE Teutiskós is mainly used to describe Germans (also in a wider sense of German-speaking people) and Germany (cf. Dan., Nor, Swe. tysk, Du. Duits, Ice. Þýskur, Lat. theodisco, It. tedesco, Rum. tudestg, even Chinese dǔ, Japanese doitsu, Korean dogeo, or Vietnamese Ðức), hence Téutiskom, German language, Teutiskoléndhom, Germany, from O.H.G. Diutisklant, Ger. Deutschland.

Finnish and Estonian derivatives are from loan word saksa, MIE Sáksōn, from L.Lat. Saxō, Saxonēs, in turn from West Germanic tribal name Saxon, traditionally regarded as from sóksom, Germanic sakhsam, “knife”, (cf. O.E. Seaxe, O.H.G. Sahsun, Ger. Sachse), therefore ‘Saxon’ could have meant lit. “warrior with knifes”, “swordsmen”, related to sókā, cutting tool, saw, as Gmc. sagō (cf. O.E. seax, secg, O.N. sõg, Norw. sag, Dan. sav, M.Du. saghe, Du. zaag, O.H.G. saga, Ger. Säge), from PIE root sek, cut. Athematic sekā, as Lat. secāre, gives common derivatives like séktiōn, section, sekméntom, segment, enséktom, insect, sektṓr, sector, dissekā, dissect, etc. Other derivatives include skend, peel of, flay, and skends, skin, as Gmc. skinths (cf. O.N. skinn, O.H.G. scinten, Ger. schinden, Flem. schinde); sáksom, stone (maybe from “broken-off piece”), from Lat. saxum; sékitā, sickle, scythe, as Gmc. segithō (cf. O.S. segasna, O.E. sigði, M.L.G. segede, M.Du. sichte, O.H.G. segensa, Ger. Sense). Compare also Lat. sасēnа, Slavic sěkǫ, sěkti (cf. O.C.S. сѣкѫ, сѣшти, O.Rus. сѣку, сѣчи, Pol. siес, siecę, Srb.-Cro. sijecem, sijehi), O.Lith. į̀sekti,  išsekt, O.Ir. doescim, Ir. ésgid, Bret. scant, Alb. shat.

77. Adjective entergnationālís comes from enter+gnationalis, and is a usual modern loan word (from Lat. terms inter+natio) in Romance and Germanic languages, as well as in Celtic and South Slavic. In some Slavic modern languages, even though the same Latin borrowings exist (cf. Russ. нация, интернационал-, Pol. nacja, internacjonal-, etc.), the usual compound is made by medhjonorodhós (cf. Russ. между+народный, Pol. między+narodowy, etc.) from PIE médhjos, middle, and nórodhs, nation.

Indo-European énter, between, among, gave Lat. inter, and is found in common loan words enteriós, interior, enternós, intern, and enternālís, internal. Also, compare other similar derivatives like ént(e)ro, as in éntrō, inward, within, from Lat. intrō, as in entroduko, introduce, entrospeko, “look inside”, introspect (see spek); or éntrā, inside, within, from Lat. intrā, as in verb entrā, enter, or suffix entra-, intra-; also found in énterim,  (with ablative suffix -im), entrīnseqós (from énterim and séqos, alongside), and entmós, innermost, intime, and its verb entmā, intimate, with -mo- being a superlative suffix. Similar IE words include entós, within, from Gk. εντός, énterom, intestine, enteron, from Gk. ἔντερον, and Skr. antara-.

The previous derivatives are ultimately derived from PIE root en, in, which gives Gmc. in(nan) (cf. Goth. in, O.N., O.Swe. i, O.E. inn, inne, O.Fris, O.H.G. M.Du., Eng. in), Lat. in, Gk. εν, Skr. an-, O.Pruss. en, Lith. į, Ltv. iekšā, O.C.S. on-, O.Ir. in, Welsh yn-, Luw. anda.

Other common derivatives include enerós, inner, further in, from Gmc. comparative innera; Gk. and Lat. endós, inner, within, which gives endostruós, diligent, industrious, from Lat. industrius (O.Lat. indostruus), thus  éndostruā,  industry, and Lat. loan word endogénts, indigent. Extended ens, into, as Gk. εις (eis), which gives epensódiom, episode, from IE epi and ensódios, entering, from Gk. εισόδιος (eisodios). Further suffixed ensō, within, gives ensoterikós, esoteric, and ensotropikós, esotropic, from Greek ἐσω.

B. Common IE words for people, race, men, nation, apart from téuta, génos, man, wīros:

B.1. For Balto-Slavic rodhs, kind, sort, genre, family, clan, and nórodhs, people, nation – look at the parallelism with génōs and gnátiōn –, compare Lith. rasmė, Ltv. rads, rasma, rаžа (from older rádhiā), O.C.S.,O.Russ. родъ, Russ. род, народ, Pol. ród, naród, etc. It is deemed to be o-grade form of PIE redh, rise out, extend forth, an Indo-European base akin to PIE verb wrōdh, grow up, and also high, steep; compare Skr. várdhati, Av. varait, Alb. rit, and (doubtfully) Arm. ordi, “son”, Lat. arbor, “tree” (possibly but unlikely PIE *wrdhōr, maybe better MIE Lat. loan árbōr), Hitt. hardu. A common derivative is zero-grade suffixed wrdhuós, straight, with MIE comp. elem. wrdho-, as Gk. ὀρθο-, Eng. ortho-.

A common Indo-European preposition is reconstructed as PIE an, on, as Lat. in- (in some cases, and also an-), Gk. ἀνά, ἄνω, Av. ana, also on, up, upon, as Gmc. ana, anō (cf. Goth. ana, O.N. á, O.E. an, on, a, O.H.G. ana, Du. aan), and variant Balto-Slavic form no, as Slavic na (cf. O.C.S. на, Ukr.,Bul.,Russ. на, Cz.,Pol. na), O.Pruss. nо, nа, Lith. nuõ, Ltv. nùо.

B.2.  Tucker suggests from the same PIE base redh a common Romance rádhios, staff, spoke of a wheel, beam of light, as Lat. radius, which gives rádhiā, race, from L.Lat. radia into It. razza, Fr., Eng. race, Spa. raza, Pt. raça. In any case, whether originally related or not, both words are written this way in Modern Indo-European.

B.3. A common Germanic word is pĺgom, people, men, from Gmc. folkam (cf. O.N. folk, O.E. folc, O.Fris. folk, M.Du. volc, Ger. Volk), which is usually compared with Lith. pulkas, O.C.S. pluku, both believed to have been borrowed from Proto-Germanic. It is related to plḗdhūs, people, multitude, as Lat. plēbs, plēbēs, and plédhuos, multitude, as Gk. πλήθος, all from PIE root pel, fill, be full. Other derivatives include plnós, full, as Gmc. fulnaz, fullaz (cf. Goth. fulls, O.N. fullr, O.E. full, O.Fris. ful, O.H.G. fol, Ger. voll); pĺio, fill, as Gmc. fulljan (cf. O.S. fulljan, O.N. fylla, O.E. fyllan, O.Fris. fella, Du. vullen, Ger. füllen ); lengthened plē, fill, and plēnós, filled, full; plaús, plus, from Lat. plūs (earlier O.Lat. plous); o-grade polús, much, many, from Gk. πολύς; verb plēdhuo, be full, as in plḗdhuōrā, plethora, from Gk. πληθώρα; adjective plērós, full, as Gk πληρης; plēiōn, more, as Gk. πλεῖον; or pleistós (superlative), most, as Gk. πλεῖστος.

B.4.  Latin populus, “people”, is usually seen as a borrowing from Etruscan. It is reconstructed as MIE pópolos, therefore maybe a secondary root derived from o-grade of pel-, full, already seen in Germanic folk and Latin plebs. Known derivatives are popolālís, public, popular, and poplikós, public, from O.Lat. poplicus, which was influenced by Lat. pubes, “adult”, into Lat. publicus, and thus also MIE publikós, which is a common Latin loan word today.

B.5.  Indo-European lúdhis, people, is found in Gmc. liudi (cf. Goth. liudan, O.N. ljlēod, O.H.G. liut, Ger. Leute, also found in Ger. Lette, Eng. Lett, mediaeval noun for Latvian), Osc. Lúvfreís, O. Pruss. ludis, Lith. liaudis, Ltv. ļaudis, OCS ljudĭje, Russ. люди, Pol. lud, O.Ir. luss, Welsh llysiau, Alb. lind. It comes from PIE verb léudh, mount up, grow – compare the parallelism with genōs/gnatiōn, wrōdh/redh –, as Skr. rodhati, Av. raodha. Also, leudherós, free, maybe originally “belonging to the people, public” (although the semantic development is obscure), as in Lat. līber, Gk. ελευθερος, and common derivatives like leudherālís, liberal, leudherā, liberate, léudhertā, liberty, deleudherā, deliver, etc.

B.6.  Another PIE common root is kei, lie, bed, couch, beloved, dear; as kéiuom, members of a household, hind, O.E. hīwan; kéiuidhā, measure of land, household, hide, O.E. hīgid, hīd; kéiuis, citizen, member of a household, Lat. cīuis, as in keiuikós, civic, keiuilís, civil, or kéiuitā, city; kéilijos, companion, as Eng. ceilidh, from O.Ir. céle; koin, cradle, from Lat. cunae; koimā, put to sleep, and also kóimā, village, as in Gk. κοιμη-, κώμη, and common borrowing koimātḗriom, cemetery, from Lat. coemeterium, itself from Gk. κοιμητήριον; zero-grade kiuós, auspicious, dear, as in Skr. śiva-; kéims, person, servant, and kéimiā, household, domestic servants, family, as O.C.S. сѣмь, сѣмиıа, O.Russ. сѣмиıа, сѣмьца, Ukr. сiм᾽я, Bulg. семейство, O.Pruss. seimīns, Lith. šeimà, šeimýna, Ltv. sàimе. Also, compare Lith. kaimas, “village”.

It gives secondary root (t)kei (from ad+kei), settle, dwell, be home, as in (t)kóimos, home, residence, village, from Gmc. khaimaz (cf. Goth. haims, O.N. heimr, O.E. hām, O.Fris. hem, M.Du hame, O.H.G. heim), which gives koimghórdhos, shelter, hangar, from Gmc. haimgardaz into O.Fr. hangard; tkiso, found, settle, metathesized form from Gk. κτίζειν; also probably Italic suffixed sítus (from older metathesized *ktítus), location, situs, and situā, situate, locate; compare also Skr. kṣeti, Av. šaēiti, Arm. šēm.

B.7.  Common PIE wel, crowd, throng, is reconstructed for MIE wólgos, common people, multitude, crowd, as in Lat. uulgus, and adjective wolgālís, “of or pertaining to the common people, common, everyday, ordinary”, then extended with time as pejorative vulgar; cf. Skr. vargaḥ, “division, group”, and also Gk. ειλειν, M.Bret. gwal'ch, Welsh gwala.

B.8. Another MIE common loan translation is swédhnos, band of people living together, nation, people, from Gk. ἔθνος (ethnos), lit. “people of one's own kind” from PIE reflexive s(w)e-. Compare also derivatives swedhnikós, ethnic, swédhniā, ethnia, race.

B.9. Latin persónā, person, (from Etruscan phersu, “mask”, and this from Gk. πρόσωπον), and famíliā, family, household, from Lat. fámolos, “servant”, (compare parallelism with Balto-Slavic pair keims/kéimiā), both of uncertain etymology, are left as loan words in Modern Indo-European.

78. MIE rḗgios, king, rḗgi, queen, are Germanic loans from Celtic, in turn derived from PIE lengthened base rēg, a common Indo-European word for the tribal king. The correct Latin loan-translations are rēgs, king, rḗgīnā, queen (possibly suffixed earlier rḗgī-), while those from Sanskrit are rḗgēn, raja, rḗgenis, rani; Indo-European rḗgiom is the Celtic source for Germanic words meaning realm, kingdom, empire, as Gmc. rikjam (cf. O.N. rīki, O.E. rīce, O.H.G. rihhi, Ger. Reich).

English “queen”, from O.E. cwen, “queen, female ruler”, also “woman, wife” comes from Gmc. kweniz, ablaut variant of  kwenō (source of Mod.Eng. quean), from PIE cénā, “woman, wife”, vide infra. Indo-European languages have usually the same words for King and Queen, using the feminine marker when necessary. English, however, had a meaning (and phonetic) shift that could be used in Modern Indo-European – as with “Chancellor” instead of “Prime Minister” for Germany and Austria – to remember this peculiarity of the English language, hence Cénis between parenthesis.

79. For wros, man, freeman, as in Eng. were-wolf. Compare Gmc. weraz (cf. Goth. wair, O.E. wer, O.N. verr), Lat. uir, Umb. viru, Skr vīra, Av. vīra, Toch. wir, O.Pruss. wirs, Lith. vyras, Ltv. vīrs, Gaul. uiro-, O.Ir. fer, Wel. gwr. Usual derivatives are wīrīlís, virile, wrtūts, manliness, excellence, goodness, virtue, wīrtuónts(ós), virtuous, skilled, of great worth, virtuoso, dekmwrōs, decemvir (commission of ten men), or komwriā, “men together”, curia, court. It is found in compound wirwĺqos (from shortened wíros), werewolf, as Gmc. wer-wulfaz (cf. O.E. werewulf, O.H.G. werwolf, M.Du. weerwolf, Swed. varulf, and also Frank. wer-wulf into O.Fr. garoul, then leu-garoul, from Lat. lupus, itself from wĺqos, hence Eng. loup-garou, lit. “wolf-werewolf”), and wíralts, world, v.i.

Common IE words for man, male, apart from mánus:

I. The common Romance word comes from Lat. homō (cf. Fr. homme, It. uomo, Spa. hombre, Pt. homem, Cat. home), in turn from IE (dh)ghómōn, man, “earthling”, human being, (cf. Arm. տղամարդ, dghamard, “man”), which gives derivatives ghomonidós, hominid, dim. ghomonkolós, homuncule, ghomokdiom, homicide, ghomontiōn, homage (from Oc. homenatge), closely related with (dh)ghōmnos, human, kind, humane, both related with MIE (dh)ghómos, earth, ground, soil, as Lat. humus, (cf. Osc. huntruis, Umb. hondomu) which gives common derivatives as ghomilís, low, lower, humble, and ghomílitā, humility, ghomiliā, humiliate, eksghomā, exhume, enghomā, inhume, transghomā, move livestock seasonally, as in Eng. transhumance. They all come from PIE root dhghem, earth, (as in Pers. zamīn, Kashmiri zamin), which gives common IE dhghōm [g^ho:m] (gen. dhghmós [g^hm̥-‘os]), earth, and other derivatives as (dh)ghḿōn [‘g^hm̥-on], man, “earthling”, in Gmc. gumōn (cf. Goth. guma, O.N. gumi, O.E. guma, O.H.G. gomo, found in Eng. bridegroom, Ger. Bräutigam; Mod. Eng. groom was altered 16^th c. by folk etymology after groom “boy, lad”, itself from a source akin to verb grow); metathesized as ghdhōm, Gk. χθών, as in autoghdhṓm, autochthon; zero-grade (dh)ghm [g^hm̥], on the ground, as Gk. χαμαι, as in ghmléōn, chameleon (“ground-lion”, lizard, léōn is from Semitic origin adopted in Greek and Latin), ghmmḗlōn, chamomile (“ground-melon”, from Lat. loan word mḗlōn, melon, short for Gk. mēlo-peppōn, “apple-gourd”); the common Balto-Slavic words come from IE (dh)ghémiā, land, earth, as O.Pruss. same, Lith. žemė, Ltv. zeme, O.Russ. zemi, Pol. ziemia, Cz. země, also found as zemlja, in O.C.S., Russ., Srb.-Cro., etc. Other common IE derivatives are Skr. kṣa, Phryg. zemelo; zamelon, Thrac. semele; semela, Toch. tkam/keṃ, O.Ir. du, Welsh dyn, Alb. dhè, Osset. zæxx; Hitt. tekan, Luw. dakam-,

I.1. Common words for earth, land, apart from dhghōm, polā, and léndhom:

I.1.a. Germanic “world” comes from wíralts, “life or age of man”, as Gmc. wirald- (cf. O.N. verold, O.S. werold, O.E. woruld, worold, O.Fris. warld, O.H.G. weralt, Du. wereld, Ger. Welt, Sca. jord), a compound of wīros, man, (cf. Hebrew adam, “man”, and adamah, “earth” and the opposite with Lat. homō, “earthling”, already seen), and altós, grown up, hence old, adult, and tall, high, deep, as Gmc. althaz (cf. (cf. Goth. alþeis, O.E. eald, O.Fris. ald, Du. oud, Ger. alt), Lat. altos, as in eksaltā, exalt, or altitū́dōn, altitude.

Adjective altós comes from PIE root al, grow, nourish, found in almós, nurturing, nourishing (as in alm mātḗr, “nourishing mother”, university); Latin verb alo, nourish, from which pres.part. alomnós, being nourished (from which álomnos, fosterling, step-child, alumnus, student), alobhilís, alible, aloméntom, aliment, as well as suffixed compound adalesko, grow up, as in adaleskénts, adolescent, or part. adaltós, grown up, adult; suffixed causative compound apaleio, retard the growth of, abolish; compound prṓlēs (from pro-alēs), offspring; and extended aldho, get well, as in Gk. ἀλθαία.

The proper IE word for old is senós, cf. Goth. sineigs, ON sina, Lat. senex, Gk. henos, Skr. sana, Av. hana, Arm. hin, Lith. senas, Ltv. sens, Gaul. Senognatus, O.Ir. sen, Welsh hyn. It is found (from Lat. senex, MIE sénēks, an elder), in sentus, senate, senilís, senile, seniós, older, as in Latin sénios, senior, señor, signore, sir, sire, senḗktūts, senectitude, etc. A common fem. sénā is attested as Gk. hénē, Skr. śanā-, Lith. senà, Lyc. lada.

I.1.b. Romance terra, “earth, Earth”, comes from PIE térsā, “dry land”, in derivatives like tersnos, terrain, suptersaniós, subterranean, tersaqiós (from térsa+áqa), terraqueous, etc. PIE ters, dry, which gives tŕstus, dryness, thirst, Gmc. thurstuz (cf. O.E. thurst), trskós, dried, as Gmc. thurskaz (cf. O.N. thorskr, O.E. cusk); torsē, dry, parch, burn, as Lat. torrēre, also as loan word in torsénts, torrent, or torsidós, torrid, p.part. torstós, burnt, into torstā, toast, and noun torstátā; zero-grade tŕsos, tarsos, frame of wickerwork (originally for drying cheese), hence a flat surface, sole of the foot, ankle, Gk. ταρσός.

I.1.c. English “earth” comes from Gmc. erthō (cf. Goth. airþa, O.N. jörð, O.E. eorðe, M.Du. eerde, O.H.G. erda), hence MIE ertā, “ground, soil, dry land”, also used for the “physical world” (as opposed to the heavens or the underworld), from PIE root er-.

I.1.d. Latin mundus, “universe, world”, lit. “clean, elegant” is from unknown origin, hence loan wod MIE móndos, which gives mondānós, mundane, “belonging to the world”, (as distinct from the Church), used as a translation of Gk. κόσμος (MIE loan word kósmos) in its Pythagorean sense of “the physical universe” (the original sense of the Gk. word was “order, orderly arrangement”). L. mundus also was used of a woman's “ornaments, dress”, and is related to the adj. mondós, clean, elegant.

Proto-Indo-European had a common root wes, for dress, clothe, compare Gmc. wazjan (cf. Goth. gawasjan, O.N. verja, O.E. werian, O.H.G. werian, Eng. wear, Ger. Wehr), Lat. uestire, Gk. hennynai, Skr. vaste, Av. vastē, Toch. wäs/wäs, Arm. zgenum/zkenum, Welsh gwisgo, Bret. gwiska, Alb. vesh; Hittite waš-. Common Latin derivatives are wéstis, garment, in dewestio, devest, enwestio, invest, transwestio.

I.1.e. Greek gē, earth, (m.γῆ, f. γαῖα) is also from unknown origin, and is left so in derivatives, as geō-.

I.1.f. English “ground” comes from Gmc. grunduz (cf. O.N. grunn, O.E. grund, O.Fris. grund, Du. grond, Ger. Grund), of unknown origin, MIE grúndus, foundation, ground, surface of the earth, originally deep place, bottom, bottom of the sea.

I.2. English “bride” comes from Gmc. bruthiz (cf. Goth. bruþs, O.E. bryd, O.Fris. breid, Du. bruid, O.H.G. brut, and from this into Mid.Lat. bruta, and from this into O.Fr. bruy), possibly originally daughter-in-law, later also “woman being married”, bride. In ancient IE custom, the married woman went to live with her husband's family, so the only "newly-wed female" in such a household would be the daughter-in-law. Reconstructed as MIE bhrútis, it is probably derived as zero-grade from PIE verb bhrew, boil, bubble, effervesce, burn, with derivatives referring to cooking and brewing, as bhrútom, broth, from Gmc. brutham (cf. O.E. broþ, V.Lat. brodum). Other derivatives include extended bhréuwo, brew, as Gmc. breuwan (cf. O.N. brugga, O.E. breowan, O.Fris. briuwa, M.Du. brouwen); bhréutom, cooked food, leavened bread, as Gmc. brautham (O.E. brēad, O.N. brot, Dan. brød, Ger. Brot); variant lengthened bhrēto, warm, giving o-grade denominative bhrōt, “a warming”, hatching, rearing of young, brood, as Gmc. brōdō, and verb bhrōtio, rear young, breed, as Gmc. brōdjan, roast flesh, or bhrḗtōn, roast flesh, as Gmc. brēdōn (cf. O.H.G. brāto, O.Fr. braon); bhrésā, burning coal, ember, hence (from O.Fr. brese) braise, breeze, braze; bhérmōn, yeast, as Gmc. bermōn (cf. O.E. beorma, M.L.G. barm, Du. berm), or further suffixed bherméntom, yeast, ferment, as Lat. fermentum; extended bherwē, be boiling or fermenting, as Lat. feruēre, as in bherwénts, fervent, bherwṓr, fervor, eghbherwesko, effervesce, etc.; and, as very archaic words for spring, compare bhrúnōn, as Gmc. brunnon, and suffixed bhrḗwr, as Gk. φρέαρ, as in bhrewtikós, phreatic. From an original PIE root bher- are also Skr. bhurati, Gk. phurdēn-migdēn, Gaul. Voberā, O.Ir. bréo, M.Ir. berbaim, Welsh beru, Alb. burmë, and also probably lengthened bhrē, smell, breathe, from which bhrḗtos, odor, exhalation, breath, as Gmc. brēthaz (cf. ON bráðr, O.E. brǣþ, O.H.G. brādam, Ger. Brodem).

II.   A form almost restricted to West Germanic is koirós, gray, hence “gray-haired”, venerable, old, as Gmc. khairaz (cf. O.E. hār, O.H.G. her, comp. herro, “noble”, Ger. Herr, Du. heer, MIE kóireros), from PIE koi, shine.

III. A Greek form comes from IE *h₂ner, man, with basic sense of vigorous, vital, strong, as in (a)nḗr, Gk. ἀνήρ (anēr), and zero-grade in compounds as anr-, andro-, -anros, -androus, “having men”, -anriā, -andry, etc.

IV. Hindustani ādmī<